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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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Camping tourism has become very popular since the beginning of COVID-19 as tourists started to look for socially distanced and yet experiential activities. However, the academic scholarship is relatively thin, particularly in the context of Eastern Europe – a geographical location with rich traditions in outdoor camping and tourism. Drawing on a quantitative methodology based on ARIMA and SARIMA, this study addresses this gap by forecasting the changes in camping tourism development in the short term in Bulgaria. The results indicate a decline of inbound tourism and international visittors but also suggest a positive trend of development for the domestic market. <br>
City crisis has been a subject of urban debates in both Anglo-Saxon and German space. “Shrinking city” (schrumpfende Stadt) term was developed in Germany and means a persistent urban crisis which is characterized by depopulation and worsening economic conditions. Nowadays, often, the only determinant for calling a city as shrinking is a population decrease. Such understanding might be misleading. In the Author’s view age structure of population is at least as important for the city economic performance and physical development as its quantitative change.
Classifications and typologies of small towns are a popular subject for research and debate among geographers, planners and sociologists. The basic aim of this paper being to discuss and assess different classifications and research approaches to small towns that take their social and economic functions into account, as well as relations with surrounding areas. However, the very concept of the small town poses certain problems, not least because definitions generally simplify down to the criterion of population size. Depending on the country, the size criterion differs and is generally in the range 5000-25,000 inhabitants. The subject literature typically includes three types of approach to the classification of small towns: 1) the structural, 2) the location-related, and 3) the mixed. The structural approach allows for the grouping of towns from the point of view of the social, cultural and economic functions they discharge. The location-related approach draws on the idea of there being a continuum between the centre and the periphery, with significance therefore attached to the location of a given small urban centre vis-à-vis large centres undergoing development to the greatest extent. A mixed classification making simultaneous use of the different approaches to research brings the most information to bear in regard to categories of urban locality, but their results may therefore prove hard to interpret, given the more-complex research procedure and number of possible classes, categories or types. Bearing in mind the approaches to classification, it is possible to propose a synthetic method for classifying small towns that takes account of economic structure, location and the relationship between the towns and their surroundings. In the case of economic structure, the small centres may be divided into two basic groups – those featuring a multi-branch structure and those that are specialised economically. A second element of the classification reflects the locations of urban centres. Two basic types can be identified – the small town within the range of impact of a large agglomeration or else the town outside such areas, which is to say located peripherally. The third component of the classification arises out of small towns’ relations with their surroundings - 1) local centres or 2) supra-local centres. In consequence, it is possible to indicate 8 types of small town.
Climate change has a huge impact on many forms of life and processes occurring on Earth. As high mountains have emerged as particularly sensitive to climate change, the Tatras, have long been a site for research on climate change and its impact on the environment. Debris flows are among the most spectacular hydrometeorological and geomorphological events occurring in high mountains, and given the long-term permafrost and large number of multiannual snow patches occurring in the Tatras, as well as the impact these exert on slope morphodynamics, it was also decided to examine the impact of climate change on selected elements of the cryosphere here. Equally, although the Karkonosze may not be counted as high mountains, but are at best intermediate between these and mountains of medium height, research of the same kind as in the Tatras has nevertheless been pursued at locations within this range. Lichenometric dating shows that the period with the greatest intensity of slope modelling in the two mountain ranges was the so-called “Little Ice Age”, the end of which is similar in the Karkonosze to in the Tatras. In both ranges, the 1930s and 1940s brought an upsurge in debris flows. Another phase of increased frequency of debris flows in the Tatras generally began in the 1970s and has continued through to the present day, while the analogous phenomenon in the Karkonosze Mountains began some 10-20 years later. Analysis of the intensity and duration of precipitation indicates that, in both the Tatra Mountains and the Karkonosze, daily precipitation totals are much less significant for the initiation of debris flows than the intensity of precipitation at given times. In the Tatras, it is sufficient for heavy precipitation of more than 1 mm/min to persist for at least 15 minutes, for debris flows to begin to occur. In the case of the Karkonosze, the duration of such heavy-rainfall events is slightly longer, with the presently-available (still scant) data suggesting 30 minutes is siffucient. The thickness of the cones analysed by GPR sounding in the Tatra Mountains is at least twice as great as that of the cones present at Mały Staw in the Karkonosze Mountains. This difference mainly reflects the size and shape of the sediment supply area and the type and dynamics of the morphogenetic processes providing the material from which the cones are formed. The Karkonosze Mountains currently lack any multiannual snow patches, though it seems very likely that 80+ years ago (at the end of the “Little Ice Age”), snow did cover parts of these mountains for almost the whole year. Existing debris glaciers in the Tatra Mountains, like the largest such glacier in the Karkonosze, displayed no activity during the “Little Ice Age”, despite the probable presence of permafrost in some of the Tatra rock glaciers. Despite the climatic differences between the Tatra and Karkonosze Mountains (mainly related to altitude and geographical location), a high degree of concordance is to be noted in the course of changes in morphogenetic processes discussed in this paper. These in turn relate to the latitudinal teleconnection phenonenon found by both climatologists and dendrochronologists. The impact of climate change on the activity of debris flows and the response on the part of snow patches/ glacierettes in the Tatra Mountains and the Karkonosze Mountains is seen to be similar to the impact and change reported in the Alps.
Climate change is an empirical fact evidenced by subsequent IPCC reports. The observed climate change is also manifested in the altered date of occurrence and duration of the seasons in a year. Variability of thermal conditions due to climate warming will have its toll on the bioclimatic conditions. The assessment of bioclimatic conditions was conducted with the use of Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). The present elaboration is based on hourly values of the following meteorological elements: air temperature, relative air humidity, wind speed and cloud cover. The meteorological data were obtained from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMGW-PIB) in Szczecin and cover the period 2000-2019. Variability of bioclimatic conditions is considered per periods corresponding to thermal seasons of the year as identified by the Gumiński (1948) method on the basis of monthly air temperature values. The analysed UTCI values with respect to thermal seasons indicate that mean UTCI values in the period 2000-2019 representative for thermal summer amount to 22.6°C, thermal spring 9,9°C, thermal autumn 8.4°C, thermal winter -10.4°C, early spring -4.6°C, and early winter -7.9°C. For the periods with identified lack of thermal winter, mean UTCI value was -6.6°C. The aim of the present paper is an attempt to assess the variability of biothermal conditions as calculated using the UTCI index against the thermal seasons of the year in Szczecin.
Climate Index UTCI to studies of regional variability in human-biometeorological conditions. The variability in question was assessed by reference to selected meteorological stations representing Central and Southern Europe, i.e. Kołobrzeg, Warsaw and Świeradów (in Poland), Prague, Budapest, Ljubljana, Milan, Rome and Athens, with the bioclimatic features characterising these localities being presented against the background of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. In line with that classification, the first five stations are found to represent the cold climate zones (Dfb, Dfc). The last four stations are in turn located in the temperate climate zones (Cfa, Cfb, Csa). Seasonal changes in UTCI values and the frequency of occurrence of UTCI categories are discussed. Significant regional differences in bioclimatic characteristics were found between the stations representing various types of climate. While the highest summer values for UTCI are very similar at all stations (39-42°C), the frequency of occurrence of days with at least strong heat stress (SHS) varied from 2% at the coastal station of Kołobrzeg in Poland to more than 50% at the Milan, Rome and Athens stations. In winter the lowest UTCI values are much differentiated regionally, from -54°C at the mountain station in Świeradów, Poland, to -22°C in Rome. In the zone of cold climate, the frequency of occurrence of days with at least strong cold stress (SCS) is >40%, while in the temperate climates, strong cold stress is characteristic of less than 2% of winter days.
Closed basins are important and fixed elements of a post-glacial landscape, in which they may occupy rather a large percentage of the total area. Sometimes these fill to become bodies of water known as kettle ponds. Each such basin has its own closed catchment at the surface and, owing to the limited circulation of matter in these types of depressions, biogenic components often accumulate to excess. In that context, the work detailed here had as its main objective the identification of sources of biogenic substances like nitrates, ammonium-nitrogen and phosphates, with a view to determining the range of variability characterising their presence in small mid-field ponds present in the catchments of two of northern Poland’s rivers, i.e. the Parsęta and the Borucinka. Most of the kettle ponds under study could not be said to have particularly high contents of nitrate, given an average for the bodies of water studied within the Parsęta basin equal to 2.98 mg·dm-3. There was nevertheless considerable variability in concentrations of the ion – ranging from 0 to as much as 51.30 mg·dm-3. It was the “Sadkowo” pond that might be singled out here for its extremely high concentration (the aforesaid maximum value of 51.30 mg·dm-3; along with a mean value of 13.41 mg·dm-3). In this case a local factor is likely to have been operating – i.e. areal runoff pollution from fields involving nitrogenous compounds. Ponds in the Borucinka catchment had only low concentrations of nitrate, with a mean value for all kettle ponds studied there of just 0.24 mg·dm-3 (with values in the overall range 0 to 2.17 mg·dm-3). Concentrations of the analysed component were thus lower in the Borucinka catchment than in the Parsęta basin, with a key influencing factor likely to have been the sizes of the bodies of water studied. The Parsęta-basin examples were in fact smaller kettle ponds whose catchment features and morphometric parameters are such as to ensure higher concentrations of biogenic (especially nitrogenous) compounds in any standing waters. Mean concentrations of ammonium ions obtained for the Parsęta basin were of 0‑2.41 mg·dm-3, the value averaged for the six ponds being 0.95 mg·dm-3. However, four other Parsęta-basin ponds excluded from the study in fact reported very high values for NH4 + – of up to 25.55 mg·dm-3. The Borucinka catchment again contrasted with the Parsęta basin, with noted concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen both low and of limited variability (in the 0‑1.88 mg·dm-3 range). The average figures for all the depressions studied there was 0.09 mg·dm-3. The situation as regards the two forms of nitrogen was thus similar, with concentrations lower in the catchment of the Borucinka and higher in the basin of the Parsęta. Sizes of bodies of water would seem to be a factor influencing spatial differentiation of NH4 + concentrations. Where phosphate was concerned, kettle ponds within the Parsęta basin had a mean concentration of 0.57 mg·dm-3, with reported values from one pond to another ranging from 0 to 4.46 mg·dm-3. The Borucinka p ds again had lower concentrations of this biogenic substance across a narrower range of values (0 to 3.69 mg·dm-3, mean 0.19 mg·dm-3).
Collective action is one of the most important ways of obtaining competitive advantage of an agricultural farm. This is confirmed by the experience of many countries leading in the development of the agricultural sector. Based on the selected example of the village of Babin, the author presents the cooperation of farmers in the scope of the sale of pig livestock, and identifies transformations in terms of the social capital resulting from the forms of team work. Attention is also drawn to the motives and consequences of collective action.
Commuting to work, school or basic services is going to be an important living condition in case of the Czech countryside. Level of public transport (PT) service was rapidly decreasing in nineties of the 20th century, which was caused by coincident of a few factors. The main goal of this paper is to analyse of PT supply level in the area in the Jeseník rural region (NUTS4—Jeseník District). The Jeseník region is one of the less developed Czech regions from many aspects (Rumpel et al. 2009), it contains 24 municipalities with approximately 41 000 people. Analysis of PT connections frequencies and connection times in the region has showed quite positive situation during the evaluation of PT local service.
Comparative analysis was performed in relation to the ecological scales of indicator values for plant species proposed by: (1) Ellenberg for the flora of Germany, (2) Landolt for the flora of Switzerland and (3) Zarzycki for the flora of Poland, in relation to six environmental features, i.e. the climatic features of light intensity [L], temperature [T] and continentality [K], and the edaphic features of moisture [F], acidity [R] and nitrogen content [N]. Characteristic species of heaths and poor grasslands from class Nardo-Callunetea were used asthe” tool” in the above comparison. Numbers of species involved ranged from 28 to 53, depending on the environmental features and compared scales involved. The assumption was that pairs of ecological scales were similar where the percentage share of species is above 50% in corresponding numbers along the scales. The main aim of the analysis was in turn to determine if compared scales originating from different parts of central Europe were similar (or distinct) in their ecological (climatic and edaphic) diagnoses, as expressed in terms of three indicator values (corresponding to three scales) for each relevant feature of the geographical environment. Results obtained were interpreted by reference to two opposing hypotheses. The first assumes that the scales compared are similar, with particular numbers along the scales conforming to the same ranges of actual measurements, while differences concern the assessment of the requirements of the species as indicators of environmental conditions. The second, alternative hypothesis assumes that the scales are different (most often shifted by one degree), while the ecological requirements of the species are similar. Analysis of histograms for frequencies of particular species categories shows that examples sustaining the first of the two hypotheses are provided by the pairs of scales of: (1) temperature [T] of Ellenberg and Landolt; (2) continentality (K) of Landolt and Zarzycki, (3) soil moisture [F] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (4) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Ellenberg and Landolt. In relation to the second hypothesis, the distribution of frequencies of the species categories in the histograms allows for the explanation of differences (in terms of shifts) within the following pairs of scales compared: (1) temperature [T] of Landolt and Zarzycki; (2) soil moisture [F] of Landolt and Zarzycki; (3) soil moisture of Landolt and Zarzycki; (4) soil acidity of Landolt and Zarzycki; (5) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki. It is worth noting that a similar analysis was achieved when the same ecological scales of indicator values were compared by reference to meadow species from class Molinio-Arrhenathereta (Roo-Zielinska, 2004), deciduous forest of class Querco-Fagetea (Roo-Zielińska, 2009), xerothermic grasslands of class Festuco-Brometea (Roo-Zielińska, 2012) and sandy xeric grasslands of class Koelerio glaucae-Corynephoretea canescentis class (Roo-Zielińska, 2015). This means that a total of some 460 species (of meadows, deciduous forests, xerothermic and sandy xeric grasslands, and heaths and poor grasslands) have now been evaluated. While this still only represents some 23% of K Zarzycki’s list of the Polish flora (Zarzycki et al., 2002), very different ecological spectra and tolerance in the five groups have not precluded the highlighting of certain regularities applying to the plant communities already studied. The results obtained point to the need for comparative analysis of European ecological scales for groups of characteristic species belonging to different phytosociological units/associations to be continued with, with ecological indicator values appropriate to Poland’s flora and plant communities then being found.
Comparative analysis was performed in relation to the scales of ecological indicator values for plant species proposed by: (1) Ellenberg, for the flora of Germany, (2) Landolt for the flora of Switzerland and (3) Zarzycki for the flora of Poland – in relation to six environmental features classed as either “climatic”: light intensity [L], temperature [T] or continentality [K] or soil-related (edaphic), i.e. moisture [F], acidity [R] and nitrogen content [N]. Species characteristic of sandy xeric grasslands from Koelerio glaucaeCorynephoretea canescentis class were used as a ”tool” in the comparison. Numbers of species differ – from 55 to 62 - depending on environmental features and the compared scales. However, it was assumed that pairs of ecological scales were similar if the percentage share of species was above 50% in corresponding points on scales. The main aim of the analysis was to assess whether compared scales originating from different parts of Central Europe are similar (or different) in their ecological diagnosis as regards climatic and edaphic conditions, where each feature of the geographical environment is expressed in relation to three indicator values deriving from the three scales. The interpretation of results was based around two opposing hypotheses: that the scales compared are similar, with particular points along them conforming to the same ranges of actual measurements, while differences concern the assessment of the requirements of the species as indicators of environmental conditions; or that the scales are different (most often shifted by one degree), while the ecological requirements of the species are similar. The analysis of histograms of frequency for the particular species categories shows that examples supporting the fi rst of the two hypotheses are constituted by the pairs of scales for: (1) light intensity [L] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki, (2) temperature [T] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (3) soil moisture [F] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (4) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Ellenberg and Landolt. In terms of the second hypothesis the distribution of frequencies of the species categories in the histograms allows for the explanation of the differences (shifts) within the compared pairs of scales concerning: (1) light [L] as expressed by Landolt or Zarzycki values; (2) continentality [K] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (3) soil moisture [F] of Ellenbeg and Landolt; (4) soil moisture of Landolt and Zarzycki; (5) soil acidity of Landolt and Zarzycki; (5) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki. It is worth noting that similar results for analysis were obtained when the same ecological scales of indicator values were compared by reference to species from meadows of Molinio-Arrhenathereta class (Roo-Zielinska, 2004), deciduous forest of Querco-Fagetea class (Roo-Zielińska 2009) and xerothermic grasslands of Festuco-Brometea class (RooZielińska, 2012). This means that a total of around 380 species (of meadow, deciduous forest, xerothermic and sandy xeric grassland) have now been evaluated, though admittedly this is still only about 20% of K. Zarzycki’s list of Polish flora (Zarzycki et al., 2002). Nevertheless, the ecological spectra and tolerances found for the four groups are very different, with results obtained suggesting the need to continue with the comparative analysis of European ecological scales for groups of species characteristic of different phytosociological units/associations, with appropriate ecological indicator values for Polish flora and plant communities being found in the process.
Comparative analysis was performed using the scales of ecological indicator values for plant species proposed by: (1) Ellenberg for the flora of Germany, (2) Landolt for the flora of Switzerland and (3) Zarzycki for the flora of Poland, in relation to six environmental features concerned with climate (i.e. light intensity [L], temperature [T] continentality [K]) and soil (moisture [F], acidity [R] and nitrogen content [N]). Species characteristic for deciduous forest of class Querco-Fagetea were used as the ”tool” in the comparison. Numbers of species differ – from 83 to 105 depending on environmental feature. It was assumed that pairs of ecological scales are similar if the percentage share of species is above 50% in corresponding degrees of scales. The main aim of the analysis is to determine if compared scales originating from different parts of Central Europe are similar (or distinct) in the ecological diagnosis (climatic and soil) diagnosis as expressed by the three indicator values (corresponding to the three scales) for each feature of the geographical environment. Results were interpreted in respect of two opposing hypotheses. The first of these assumes that the scales compared are similar, with the particular degrees conforming to the same ranges of actual measurements, while differences concern the assessment of the requirements of species as indicators of environmental conditions. The second, alternative hypothesis assumes that the scales are different (most often shifted by one degree), while the ecological requirements of the species are similar. The analysis of histograms of frequency of the particular species categories shows that support for the first of the two hypotheses is provided by the pairs of scales for: (1) light intensity [L] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (2) temperature [T] of Ellenberg and Landolt; (3) degree of continentality [K] of Landolt and Zarzycki; (4) moisture of the soil [F] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (5) acidity of the soil [R] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; and (6) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Ellenberg and Landolt. as regards the second hypothesis, the distribution of frequencies for species categories in the histograms allows for the explanation of differences (shifts) within the following pairs of scales compared: (1) temperature [T] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki; (2) climate continentality [K] of Ellenberg and Zarzycki, (3) soil acidity [R] of Ellenberg and Landolt, and of Landolt and Zarzycki; and (4) nitrogen content in the soil [N] of Landolt and Zarzycki. It is worth noting that similar results and conclusions were achieved when the same ecological scales of indicator values were compared, albeit on the basis of species from meadows in class Molinio-Arrhenathereta (Roo-Zielinska, 2004). This means that a total of c. 200 species (of meadow and deciduous forest) were evaluated. However it is only 10% of K Zarzycki list of Polish flora (Zarzycki et al., 2002), but ecological spectra and tolerance of both groups (with large number of species) are very different. The obtained results suggest a need to continue with such comparative analyses of European ecological scales for groups of characteristic species belonging to different phytosociological units, and to find proper ecological indicator values for the Polish flora and plant communities.
Concepts are the basic building blocks of all knowledge, while the strength of any societal project is dependent on the quality of those concepts. As two of the oldest geographical concepts still in widespread use, ‘rural/urban’ stand in stark contrast to the immense changes encountered by the society over the last century, let alone decades. To better understand this controversy, this paper moves away from conventional rural and urban theory, and instead focuses on the philosophical constitution of this conceptual pair. By critically evaluating six of the most common conceptions of ‘rural/urban’, including their pros and cons, this paper makes a case for reconfiguring our relationship with familiar understandings of societal organization. The paper concludes that by paying greater attention to how concepts operate at a cognitive level, how they are construed and collectively maintained, can help facilitate decisions whether ‘rural/urban’ are truly analytically contributory to a specific line of thought or action, or whether they merely linger as a cultural ostinato that is too elusive to be conquered or held.
Consequences of spatial inequalities pose a threat to social cohesion as well as injustice and marginalization, potentially contributing to political breakdown. Social discontent is reflected in the rise of populist and contestationist parties that target establishment parties. The article addresses the issue of socio-economic spatial inequalities on a regional scale and the resulting geography of discontent among communities that feel "left behind." An analysis of political preferences was conducted by comparing two electoral districts located in problem areas (characterized by urbanization lag - Chełm district and transformation shock - Koszalin district). The results of the last four elections to the Polish parliament (2011, 2015, 2019, 2023) were examined. The outcomes were contrasted with nationwide political orientations and one of the most elite, implicitly the least populist, localities in Poland (Poznań district). On this basis, the thesis of more populist electoral preferences of the population in problem areas can be confirmed. Populism, however, does not always represent a specific ideology on the left-right axis, and shows the potential to attract voters whose preferences are shared among local conservative or more progressive fractions. More ideologically expressive groups, both right-wing and left-wing, obtained comparable and above national results in problem areas in both types of communities. On the other hand, mainstream parties, realizing the potential of populist factions, are adjusting their electoral program to compete for the votes of "dissatisfied" communities of "left behind" areas. -- <br>
Contemporary and relict borders have recently emerged as tourist attractions in their own right – to the extent that specific tourist products have even been made ready on the basis of them. This article has turned its attention to the marking of borders and the way this acts in support of the tourism-related objectives now seen to represent a novel function served by borders. Specifically, results are presented here in relation to the marking and delimitation of borders of Poland both past and present. The most in-depth analysis was then based around four case studies, i.e. one for each of the following identified periods in existence of given borders in operation at one time or another on the Polish lands. The research sustained several key conclusions, in line with which it has been worth stressing that each of the examples or aspects of border marking serves, not only as a factual tourist attraction, but also as a significant message conveyed. And what is being passed on in that way can be seen to have 3 key thrusts, i.e.: events from history, meaning old divisions (but also the loss of independence due to the Partitions of Poland, and its regaining, as well as the remembrance of heroes, changes to the lines followed by borders, and the associated regaining of land in the west, extending as far as the River Oder); local conditioning and the symbolic significance attachable to the most important border markings. <br>
Contemporary rural settlement in Poland is first and foremost modified by demographic processes, of which decisive ones are a migratory influx of new inhabitants into rural areas in the immediate vicinity of large cities, as well as population outflow from most rural areas that are located traditionally and above all peripherally. These two directions to migration generate mostly opposing trends where the development of rural areas is concerned. Inflows of new inhabitants into suburbs and satellite villages close to cities ensure social, economic and infrastructural development or ”progress”, and sometimes even – paradoxically – a change of status from rural to urban. On the other hand, migratory outflows from most other rural areas give rise to a process of demographic degradation whose extreme manifestation may be the actual disappearance of a rural settlement. The fundamental unit of measurement and study here was the so-called ”statistical locality”, defined by GUS as the group of places taking on the name of the leading locality and usually comprising a village plus smaller settlements adjacent to it. The research encompassed a total of 41,466 such localities existing uninterruptedly between 1950 and 2011. The analysis further encompassed six time intervals, of which each ended in a year during which a Census was carried out (i.e. 1950, 1960, 1970, 1978, 1988, 2002 and 2011). For each inter-Censal period, attention was paid to the magnitude and direction of demographic change taking place in all of the rural localities. In this work, the key focus is on the “uniformly regressing villages”, which is to say those losing more than 5% of their inhabitants in the 1950‒2011 period, but also experiencing population declines in every one of the six inter-Censal periods. This is taken to be adequate justification for use of the more-loaded term “disappearing”. Through analysis of the statistical localities in rural areas it was found that some 25,711 of all villages reported a decline in the number of inhabitants over the 1950‒2011 period. However, the steady loss of people indicated by population declines over each of the six studied time intervals was an issue for 2956 of the villages mainly located in central and eastern parts of Poland. These are areas long regarded as only poorly-developed economically, including parts of the east that are clearly categorisable as “peripheral”. To be noted among the factors behind disappearances of villages are limited attractiveness arising out of low standards of living, natural conditions unsuited to farming, limited incomes earned from agricultural activity and poor outfitting in social and technical infrastructure. Throughout the post-War period it is small villages of fewer than 100 people that have experienced the most marked demographic regress. The smallest settlements of all – with 50 people or less – have experienced the most major loss of population, at around 28% on average. The analyses reported here thus support the notion that the scale and village, the less-serious the unfavourable population processes. However, the disappearing villages are home to a number of overlapping problems with development. Inhabitants either lack opportunities to meet their daily needs, or at best have limited chances to do so. And this starts with physiological needs, though also of course ranges through the social, emotional and economic, and ends with lack of access to public goods and services. The decline of rural areas thus features a so-called triggering factor, with this then unleashing a sequence of positive-feedback processes. A most typical trigger would be lack of job opportunities, and this exerts a selective effect in relation to who leaves the countryside. A next consequence of that is a decline in the purchasing power of rural households, a further worsening of living conditions, and inefficient use of infrastructure.
Contemporary settlement systems observed in Poland bear numerous traces of historical transformations of rural settlements which took place in the 19th century, at the time of foreign partitioning of Polish territory, in different ways in particular regions. The result of processes occurring from the second half of the 20th century is the extensive development of urban areas, and – after 1990 – chaotic, spontaneous processes of transformation in suburban zones. Research methods using graph theory have been applied for years in investigating settlement networks on various scales. One of the more useful graphs is the minimum spanning tree (MST), which connects all vertices in such a way that the sum of the distances between them is the shortest. This article presents the application of the minimum spanning tree (or shortest dendrite) method with a view to its suitability for determining the degree of dispersion and spatial cohesion of urbanised structures being assessed. Two indicators have been proposed thanks o alignment of the shortest dendrite length to other variables. The settlement network effectiveness indicator is the ratio of MST length to the population in an area. The settlement network cohesion indicator is in turn the ratio of the MST length to population density. Mazowieckie voivodeship has been chosen as the research area, while address points obtained from the central official database collecting data from municipal records have been chosen as the source dataset. Over 1 million address points were considered, in line with their status as at the end of 2016. Minimum spanning trees were plotted for each of the 314 gminas (local-authority areas) aking up the voivodeship, using ArcGIS software. Subsequently, the proposed indicators were calculated by reference to the MSTs. The results were then mapped. The proposed indicators may be helpful in studies on the origin of settlements, allowing areas with varying degrees of uniformity or isolation of building locations to be indicated. They can be made use of in comparative studies, especially concerning rural settlements, in which single-family housing predominates, and hamlets and uildings standing in isolation are present. The effectiveness indicator can be used in the assessment of infrastructural coverage, i.a. in the ontext of the costs of spatial chaos and demographic capacity.
Contemporary villages are becoming increasingly differentiated, both in the regional and socio-economic sense. Transformation of these areas is an ongoing process, resulting in changing their functions. Growing diversity of agriculture gives way to increasing multi-functionality of rural areas. Along with the progressive development processes in rural areas, significance of various functions – not yet accentuated – is being revealed and amplified. The study presents functional transformation of rural areas on the example of Pomerania region. These areas have enhanced their socio-economic, environmental, cultural and spatial functions. The aim of this study is to define changes taking place in individual functions of rural areas and their mutual relations. Agriculture and forestry play an important role in rural areas, acting as a basis for natural resource management and development of the rural landscape. The article illustrates classifications of village and agriculture functions based on various criteria. Significant role of emerging new functions in the villages of the studied area, often innovative and prospective, influencing further development of Pomeranian rural areas was emphasized. Fundamental condition for the development of the researched villages is to increase their diversity, in particular by enriching the socio-economic functions. Rural areas are currently facing numerous challenges and the driving force for their development lies within activity of their residents.
Correct evaluation of transport investments financed under different operational programmes requires comprehensive analysis of the influence of those investments on transport accessibility changes. Accessibility changes concern multiple transport modes simultaneously (among others, road, railway, air and inland water transports). From this viewpoint, the factor of key importance is using a synthetic accessibility indicator in a multimodal approach as well as modal indicators, including Air Accessibility Indicator (AAI). In this paper air accessibility to airports was assumed to result on the one hand from the time of travel to all airports in the country, and on the other hand to depend on the airport capacity. All major investments carried out at airports and aimed at increasing the capacity of terminals were taken into consideration. Attractiveness of an airport was assumed to be analogous to its capacity. We use potential accessibility indicator. On each spatial level of the analysis below the national one, i.e. from the commune level through the voivodeship level up to the macro-region level, accessibility analysis is prepared based on all routes between an arbitrary pair of communes in Poland (matrix layout). We focus on the calculation of accessibility indicators at the municipal level. Poland is slowly entering the development phase where some regions become saturated with modern transport infrastructure (road and air infrastructure in particular). By percentage, Eastern Poland benefited the most from air investments (over threefold AAI indicator increase), including in particular the Lublin and Podlaskie Voivodeships, primarily as a result of opening new airports in Lublin and Modlin.In conclusion, the conducted research confirms the thesis that improvement of accessibility in air transport may be achieved both by erecting or modernising airport infrastructure (new structures, capacity increase) and by developing land transport.
Cross-border cooperation – as objective 3 of cohesion policy since the 2007-2013 programming period – plays a key role in promoting Europeanisation, which is especially important in case of Central Europe that is dominated by small national states. Target areas of cross-border cooperation are the NUTS 3 units located along the state borders. As project generation, decision making and implementation is overwhelmingly done on regional level, territorial governance structures are decisive from cross-border cooperation point of view. The paper focuses on two programmes – the Slovenia-Austria and the Hungary-Croatia – whose target areas are lacking large urban centres, middle-size and small towns make up the backbone of the settlement network. The involved countries are very diverse in regional governance structures. Austria is a federal state with strong regional governments. Croatia and Hungary are unitary states with limited capacities on regional level. Slovenia is, again, a unitary state that lacks medium level of government, therefore the local level is the carrier of cross-border cooperation. Aim of the paper is to identify how different systems of territorial governance are reflected in the implementation of the programme and the allocation of funding. After presenting the premises of cross-border cooperation and a brief outline of the two programmes a quantified analysis will be presented based on primary ex-post programme data of the 2007-2013 Slovenia-Austria and Hungary-Croatia cross-border cooperation programmes. Analysis is conducted on LAU 2 level in order to show how different categories of the settlement structure contribute in terms of cooperation activity and absorption and how it is distributed between different types of beneficiary organisations.
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