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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
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INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
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INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
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INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
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INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
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SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
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MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
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INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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- The Polish-Russian border is unique, and for many reasons. One of these relates to the role of Kaliningrad Oblast vis-à-vis Russia on the one hand, and the EU and NATO on the other, making it clear how strategically important the District is from the geopolitical point of view. A second wider issue of course concerns Russia’s position on the international stage. Unsurprisingly, the Polish-Russian border has been characterised by a significant dynamic where changes of function and permeability are concerned. Given that the border plays a role even at global level, transformations that have occurred relate to changes in EU/Poland-Russian relations, even if such top-down considerations neglect a further significance from the point of view of border residents who must struggle with issues of lack of access to a stable border. The aim of the work detailed in this paper was thus to identify the functions played by the Polish-Russian border across the whole 1990–2018 period, as well as the associated degree of permeability. And despite a relatively rich literature devoted to the border in question, it is possible to note relative neglect of the matter of how that border was created and shaped, as well as a real lack of analyses when it comes to variability in status post-2012. This gap in the Polish literature, in particular, is bridged in the present paper, whose author sought the answers to three key research questions. These related to whether, and to what extent, the Polish-Russian border actually represented a barrier; to the factors determining variability of function and permeability; and to the impact of any instability of functioning on the everyday lives of inhabitants in the Poland-Kaliningrad border region. Analysis of the material compiled makes it clear that the greatest impact on the role of the border in question is that exerted by individual decisions of central governments and the European Parliament. For the years 1990–2018 saw the border’s status change under the influence of, for example: the introduction of visa-free travel (1990–1997), the Act on Foreigners (1998–2003), Poland’s accession to the EU (2004–2007), Poland’s accession to the Schengen Area (2008–2011), the introduction of local border traffic (2012–2016), the Crimean crisis (from 2014) and suspension of local border traffic (from 2016). Additionally, the role of the border has been changed by the state of border infrastructure, procedures, the image of Russia, global trends relating to borders and relations nurtured by ruling political parties.
- Political boundaries represent a universal phenomenon and key element by which social and economic phenomena existing across space are structured. But both the presence and the nature (role, function, etc.) of borders are seen to vary temporally and spatially, with differentiated attendant consequences for socio-economic development. The present article relates to state borders, which separate certain areas off from others, while at the same time constituting meeting points and points of contact between them. While this would hold true whether we perceive the said borders as lines, areas or zones, the modern-day approach to borders is a multi-dimensional one that treats them as socio-spatial constructs revealing and articulating differentiation that truly exists. It is possible to note two opposing cause-and-effect processes here. On the one hand, there are different divisions and boundaries between many socio-economic and even natural phenomena that sanction the existence and locations of borders; while on the other the very existence of state borders establishes or reinforces the existence of other, new divisions that can be regarded as boundaries (even as they are not now necessarily state borders as such). I trust that this argumentation helps capture the essence of the geography present in considerations of boundaries and borders; as well as its changing but ever-important role, while at the same time generating opportunities for further research, and for the ongoing observation of the diverse processes linking up with the existence of borders. Variability and change of function would seem to offer a key to the understanding of the significances of borders and the influences they exert, as regards the border landscape, neighbourly (international) relations and phenomena of a socio-economic nature. In that light, four functions for borders are in fact proposed here – as barriers, peripheries, lines of differentiation and axes of integration. Each change has knock-on implications for transformations of function in regard to both borders as such and the areas adjacent to them. Thus, by making assumptions as to the fundamental aspects characterising variations in the nature of borders, it has been possible here to come up with proposals regarding the consequences these will bring with them. And even as a process whereby a border opens up is underway and integration is ensuing, it is still possible that change as a whole will falter or even stall, should issues arise locally (e.g. through conflict or other negative events), nationally (e.g. through unilateral or bilateral severing of agreements), or globally (e.g. thanks to external threat, a desire to protect domestic markets or a migration crisis). For these reasons, geopolitical considerations will always reign supreme over other borderland phenomena, determining directions of development and possibilities for borders (and adjacent areas) to function. In that light, this article stresses the still-relevant need for borders, borderlands and relevant ongoing processes to be made subject to theoretical conceptualisation and processing. And this would be true as regards, not only the spatial extent or scope of borderland areas, but also the changing conditioning, consequences and actions. In this, a challenge that continues to be present entails the founding of theoretical concepts for the borderland that draw on selected paradigms and stress the role and importance of border and borderland geography, along with its key subjects of interest. And, where the study of borders being pursued in Poland is concerned, it needs to be hoped that a new trajectory may be found and followed, with each conceptualisation exerting a summarising or theorising impact proving of value as form is given to a full new theory for the development of borders and borderlands in Poland and its neighbouring countries, with account taken, not merely of recent decades, but of a much longer time period.
- Pope John Paul II wrote that Poland is “a Republic peacefully including many Nations, many Cultures, many Religions”. Somehow Norman Davies was more critical when he entitled his two volume history as God’s playground: A history of Poland. The Author of this paper feels rather uncertain about these descriptions.Certainly the neighbouring states have been very active in the ‘playground’, but the population has never been invited to play, and, lest we forget, look what happened to the Jewish inhabitants. Only in 1989, a long time after WW2, did East European states gain their full independence, and then their economic backwardness compared with Western Europe suddenly appeared in its full dimension. After years of diplomatic discussions, Poland and seven other East European states could officially join the European Union in 2004. This year was chosen for a first socio-economic comparison between the old and the new members of the EU. It was no surprise at all; the situation in the new members was by far the worst, even when compared with the less wealthy older ones. The second comparison relates to 2007 when the new members entered the Schengen Area, a compulsory clause for new members of the EU. Though remaining strong, differences were slowly decreasing. But a global crisis was beginning, and the crash officially came in September 2008 (with the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers). That’s why the 3rd comparison, relative to 2012, gives puzzling results. The economic crisis has, without a doubt, been truly global, and from 2007/2008 to 2012 the figures got worse everywhere. But the impression changes when comparing 2012 to 2004: generally speaking, GDP has gone up in the old members but has been completely nullified by inflation. Not so in the New Member States where people certainly have more money now than they did before accession. In the first years after accession many workers tried to move westbound, but now a good number are coming back. I have dedicated greater importance to Poland, for obvious reasons, and to Italy. These are two countries which are traditionally friendly, and the more so after the election of John Paul II. In conclusion, all in all, accession has been a good choice for the new members, but to progress further stronger cooperation is needed.
- Potential for tourism development, especially in rural areas, depends mainly on natural and cultural assets, which affect the attractiveness of a given territory. The size and distribution of tourist traffic is equally affected by accessibility of an area by transport routes and by the presence of basic elements comprising tourist infrastructure. The study covered rural and urban-rural communes of the Elbląg County, whose location is an additional asset in planning the development of tourism in this area. An analysis was carried out and a comparison was made concerning tourist attractiveness of communes in the Elbląg County with the use of a multidimensional comparative analysis which employs synthetic measures. The results of a study concerning tourist attractiveness of rural and urban-rural communes in Elbląg County indicate relative diversity in their potential for tourism development. The number of architectural monuments, existing tourist routes, water bodies, forests and protected areas in the Elbląg County enable one to spend leisure time in an attractive area. Lack of easy access by transport routes and scarce tourist facilities may hamper the development of tourism in the area. The results of the study suggest that general interest in development of tourism is inconsiderable, which imposes to present objective arguments by local authorities concerning the choice for locating tourist investments. This can be supported by research on tourist attractiveness of communes, especially in rural areas.
- The present article deals with issues of cultural economics. The author sought to characterise cultural sector entities in Wrocław (Poland). The study is based on a statistical analysis of data from the Central Statistical Office (GUS) which characterise the cultural sector in Poland and in the studied city in 2010-2019. Special focus was given to provide the characteristics of the entities, including their number, number of employees, type of activity and spatial distribution. Based on the information collected, the author has formulated the following conclusions: recent years, especially the period 2016-2019, have witnessed a significant increase in the number of cultural entities, active especially in new media. Wrocław’s cultural sector entities tend to be located in the vicinity of the Old Town and along the axis running from the city centre to the south, all the way to the municipality of Kobierzyce. The new trends observed in the development of culture do not build on the potential developed back in the 20th century, for instance in the film or television industry. In some areas (including publishing, radio, television) one can observe intense competition from entities (both domestic and foreign) located in other cities, mainly in Warsaw. No single creative activity is prevailing in Wrocław, which means that the city has not yet selected its specialisation in the field of culture.
- The present article1 discusses difficulties in the practical application of spatio-temporal databases to geographical-historical research. Apart from undeniable assets of introducing database tools to historical studies, research practice implies also quite significant difficulties related to the unreliability, incompleteness or imprecision of historical information. These features, along with the subjectivism of historical inferential methods (their susceptibility to interpretation), should be taken into consideration when creating Historical Geographical Information Systems (HGIS). Thus assembled, historical information becomes easily accessible for secondary interpretation (source scheme). The critical scheme of any database, created jointly by historians, engineering ontologists, and data modelling specialists, should account for both the ‘expediency’ and ‘processuality’ of historical phenomena, as well as the complex nature of spatio-temporal objects (the ongoing dispute between endurantists and perdurantists).
- Present rural economies of developed countries are no more dominated by agriculture. However, in policies of rural economic development the position of farming remains very strong due to the persisiting productivist thinking. Consequently, the tools of such policies are strongly related to agriculture, despite its minor contribution to rural economies of developed countries. The aim of this article is to offer recommendations for more efficient policies of rural economic development which are not based only on agriculture. These policy recommendations for European or national, regional and local authorities are key research findings of the project Non-agricultural and non-tourism economic industries in rural peripheries of the Visegrad countries funded by the International Visegrad Fund.
- The presented article focuses on the relationship between social exclusion and the transport geographical characteristics which are considered as instrumental in the development of social exclusion, and also as a negative feature that can even deepen the exclusion. In the first part, the author generally defines and examines the concept of social exclusion as a selectively operating process of differentiation, the way it has been perceived over time and its individual aspects with an emphasis on the spatial dimension. The second part of the article is devoted to the conditional relationship between transportation and social exclusion. Besides the description of this process of exclusion, which is transport related, there is a discussion of the role of transport (in)accessibility and characteristics of personal mobility as a crucial factors which cause or intensify the exclusion. On the other hand it also offers a chance to reintegrate individuals into society.
- Presented here is a map of Poland drawn up to show differences in values obtained for the Shannon Diversity Index, as calculated using Corine Land Cover data for the 2012 situation regarding the country’s landscape. The level of detail is that of the Polish commune (gmina – unit of local-government administration), so the analysis may prove to be of practical value. The same method gained previous use in depicting issues relevant to Poland’s 2011 National Spatial Development Concept 2030.
- Preserved urban ruins convey a social and political message, sometimes with great impact. Whereas stakeholders often tend to cancel the traces of disaster, the conservation of ruins has been the consequence of much disputed decisions. Such decisions can be explained by the will to use the conservation of ruins as a preventive tool. Indeed, the conservation of a disaster’s traumatic marks can be a tool to perform urban resilience, since the urban system integrates the trauma, in an open purpose of risk mitigation. However, this instrument of risk management entails major urban planning issues. Many municipalities in various countries have decided to preserve ruins after tragic events. They set up specific restoration and management standards, various aesthetic and technical choices, access and presentation criteria, but they also indicate a political exploitation of the disaster.
- The primary aim of the study was to identify the process of territorial expansion and spatial development in large cities of Poland: Wrocław, Warsaw and Cracow. This denoted the gathering of information on changes in administrative boundaries as well as population in the cities referred to – from the 13th century all the way through to modern times. The research hypothesis adopted was that cities expand their territories gradually, with each extension of administrative boundaries following a specific pattern and reflecting social and economic growth. The territorial development of a city (territorial change) thus relates to growth (change) in the administrative area, often in the form of expansion in relation to a widening of administrative boundaries, but with narrowing also possible. The spatial development of the city in turn follows the development of urbanised areas both within the boundaries and in the immediate vicinity of the given city. The study was inspired by observations on the specific nature of territorial growth in Wrocław and other large cities in Poland, for which analysis revealed some regularities to the settlement processes during different historical periods. Firstly, changes in the administrative boundaries of large cities followed a pulsatile pattern, with consecutive modifications alternating with periods of stability of variable length. Secondly, the territorial expansion of a city usually came after a period of dynamic social and economic growth both within existing boundaries and in the surrounding zone connected closely with the city and transformed under its influence. In turn, most longer periods in which boundaries were stable corresponded to periods of social and economic stagnation in the given city. Thirdly, the boundaries of cities changed when a certain climax point of population density was exceeded, and the city could no longer grow within its existing boundaries. Each extension contributed to an increase in the administered area and to population growth, albeit with populati n density decreasing considerably – in statistical terms – given the incorporation of new, less-urbanised areas offering free (potential) land for further urban growth. Fourthly, the sequence of development processes and their specific repeatability are cyclical in nature, and consecutive cycles are seen to end successive stages involving the extension of cities’ administrative boundaries. A single cycle of changes in the administrative boundaries of the city consists of five basic phases. Phase I is the initial phase, which takes place at the moment of foundation of a city, or in the case of subsequent cycles – when there is extension of the city limits. During phase II the number of residents and population density within the city borders increase as a result of socio-economic growth. During phase III population density within the city boundaries continues to increase, and after reaching the limit of its growth potential the city sprawls to the nearest neighbourhood. During phase IV the impact of the city n its neighbourhood stimulates further development of the suburbs. This process may also often encompass suburban villages or smaller towns strongly connected with the city. During phase V the functional link between the city and its neighbourhood (suburbs) is so strong that the administrative boundaries are extended to include suburban areas that represent a natural extension of the city. This contributes to an increase in area and population growth, as well as to a major decrease in population density within the new boundaries. This phase is at the same time the initial phase for the next cycle of a city’s spatial and territorial development. The above described cyclical pattern of territorial growth concerns a specific group of cities – monocentric regional centres developing as a result of the influence of centripetal forces in the physicalism and functional approach.
- The primary objective of the work is to analyze the largest Polish cities in terms of the smart city indicators, which currently form one of the most important models of development. Special attention was paid to smart and sustainable solutions for public transport and infrastructure. An MCDM (Multiple Criteria Decision Making)/MCDA (Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis) method was used. First, the selected method (PROMETHEE) allowed to indicate the smartest and least smart cities with respect to six main dimensions: smart economy, smart people, smart governance, smart mobility, smart environment, and smart living. Secondly, the PROMETHEE method allowed compilation of a final ranking, taking into account publicly available indicators of the smart city concept. Finally, 43 smart city indicators that are available in public statistics were proposed. In addition to the primary goal of the study, i.e., diagnosis of Polish cities in terms of the global concept of smart city, a critical analysis of the availability of necessary statistical indicators was also carried out, indicating potential directions for database development.
- The principal aim of this paper is to analyze the trends of the multi-annual course of the selected characteristics of extreme precipitation, snow cover and atmospheric thunderstorms in the second half of the twentieth century in Poland. The results of these investigations show that in Poland it is only possible to determine a weak decreasing trend of extreme precipitation events in the S and especially in the SW part of the country. In northern Poland, opposite, although similarly weak, trends have also been observed. It is assumed that the most essential features of long-term changeability of extreme precipitation include a higher than average number of days with extremely high precipitation during the 1960s and 1970s, a distinctly lower frequency of such days during the 1950s, 1980s and in the first half of the1990s. In Poland it is possible to distinguish four broad homogenous areas in terms of the long-term changes in the occurrence of extreme precipitation events. There is considerable regional differentiation when it comes to the occurrence of thunderstorms in Poland, and their long-term changeability does not show any clear trends. Only three stations have determined a weak increase in the number of thunderstorms during the last 120 years. In some stations, an increase in the number of days with thunderstorms during the winter seasons was also observed. There were no significant trends in extreme snow cover in Poland. The periods that contained large and small areas of extreme snow cover thickness occurred alternately. Since the winter season 1987/88, the area of extremely thin snow cover has remained at a relatively high level.
- The principal objective of this paper is to analyze social, demographic and professional transformation of rural population inhabiting the Opolskie Voivodship in the period of 1995-2011. The study is mainly based on the CSO data from the National Census. The article provides analysis concerning potential effects of these phenomena in the perspective of 2035 and 2050. It has been proven that the thesis of a deep demographic crisis of this region’s rural areas is justified. There have occurred meaningful changes in the professional structure of rural population and the use of labor resources is highly varied and complex, both in terms of time and space. Rural areas presenting agricultural function in the Opolskie Voivodship are not completely utilized considering their demographic potential, and conducted research has confirmed that the human factor in agriculture has been weakening (demographic deformations have occurred mainly due to permanent migration outflow).
- Prior to the approval of the Urban Regeneration Act 2015 (UR 2015) the Polish land management system did not provide sufficient quantity and quality of public urban infrastructure. Along with land-use planning, inefficient land acquisition and land value capture frameworks may be blamed for this situation. This paper aims at estimating the extent of progressive change of the Polish law amendments made by the UR act by applying a benchmark of relevant German legal regulations. Identified changes have developed the Polish toolkit of urban infrastructure provision, but effective and comprehensive frameworks of land readjustment and infrastructure-based betterment levies are still missing.
- The problem of the proper functioning of plant cover in urbanised conditions is extremely important in the context of improving the quality of life of city-dwellers. In onnection with this, an urgent task is appropriate shaping of green areas to provide better living conditions in cities. In recent times, the idea of the vegetation in cities (including of spontaneous origin) being subject to naturalisation has gained strong promotion as urban greenspace is being planned. There are many examples of spontaneous vegetation forming an aspect of the planning of greenspace in Europe, the United States, and Poland also. However, differing views expressed by inhabitants act to limit the use – and level of acceptance – of urban areas’ spontaneous vegetation. Nevertheless, thanks to progressing ecological education, areas with synanthropic vegetation of a “more natural” character are proving increasingly acceptable to the public. .
- The problem of vacant commercial premises has been present in some central areas of transitional cities of Central and Eastern Europe, which have decayed in parallel to spatially uneven urban development processes and/or suburban expansion. This research aims to contribute to systematic analysis of the reasons for abandonment of commercial premises in the centre of Zagreb and exploration of revitalisation strategies, with an emphasis on the significance of citizen participation for successful planning and management of the city. The research was undertaken in two phases in May, 2016. The first included mapping of vacant commercial premises on selected streets in Zagreb’s centre. Next, using a non-probabilistic sample, a questionnaire survey was carried out face-to-face and online (N = 200). The results of the questionnaire survey showed the respondents’ awareness of the complex set of reasons underlying the occurrence and expansion of this phenomenon in the city centre and the need for urban regeneration, including a stronger regulatory framework at the city level.
- The process of population decline in highly developed countries is commonly perceived as a problem, particularly in some regions of these countries. Population growth is likewise seen as a daunting challenge. This indirectly leads to the conceptually faulty conclusion that the one and only balanced and safe population size is the current one. In reality, negative population growth on both national and regional levels also has its advantages – which do not typically garner much interest or consideration, obscured by the unsubstantiated argument that depopulation is mostly damaging to the well-being of the nation. Regardless of the pros and cons of depopulation, the fact that the process is underway is undisputable. Depopulation is generally accompanied by accelerated rates of aging in a given population. Given the dearth of effective tools to reverse these trends, it is wiser to cease all attempts to reverse the irreversible and instead focus on preparing the organizational structures of states and regions for the economic and social ramifications of depopulation.
- The process of residential suburbanisation may cause changes in the age structure of the population as the age composition of in-migrants is younger than long-term residents. However, the demographic change associated with the second demographic transition as well as the co-existence of suburbanisation and reurbanisation of inner city areas may have ambiguous impacts on the age composition. The aim of this paper is to show changes in the age structure of the population in a post-socialist city in the light of suburbanisation using the example of the Kraków Metropolitan Area. In particular, we sought to show whether the intensive development of this process results in the inhibition of population ageing due to the influx of people in suburban areas along with the outward diffusion of the behaviours associated with the second demographic transition.
- The process of shifting from management method based on bureaucratic principles to governance is limited by diverse barriers primarily related to obtaining adequate level of public participation. Numerous reasons for this state of affairs have been widely recognized, however little attention is paid to the inhabitants’ willingness to such commitment. The aim of this article is to answer the questions: what is the level of inhabitants’ willingness to participate in local governance and what factors diversify this level to the greatest extent. Thorough analysis has led to conclusion that inhabitants’ willingness in selected rural communes of the Łódzkie Voivodeship is on mediocre level and the factor of the greatest importance in its diversification is the perceptible (sufficient) degree of being informed about actions undertaken by local authorities.
- The programme of identification, cataloguing and evaluation of Polish landscapes, part of the implementation of the European Landscape Convention, has caused an increase in interest in physico-geographical regionalisation over recent years. The commonly accepted regionalisation of Poland developed by J. Kondracki (Kondracki & Richling 1994) is sufficient for work at an overview scale (e.g. 1:500,000), whereas its spatial accuracy is too low to make use of it for the purpose of Polish landscape cataloguing. The aim of this article is to present a more up-to-date and detailed division of Poland into mesoregions, adjusted to the 1:50,000 scale. In comparison with older work, the number of mesoregions has increased from 316 to 344. In many cases, some far-reaching changes in meso- and macroregions were made. Nevertheless, in most cases the previous system of units was maintained, with more detailed adjustment of boundaries based on the latest geological and geomorphological data and the use of GIS tools for the DEM analysis. The division presented here is a creatively developing new work aligning the proposals of the majority of Polish researchers. At the same time, it is a regionalisation maintaining the idea of the work developed by J. Kondracki as well as his theoretical assumptions and the criteria used to distinguish units, which makes it a logical continuation of his regional division.
- Projects promoting transformation of education in rural areas, ranging from pre-school through the implementation of programs in schools, support new and adequate skills of teaching staff as well as investments in educational infrastructure are possible due to European Funds. Thanks to the activity of the commune and/or local leaders in rural areas it is possible to obtain EU funds to implement comprehensive measures to support existing educational institutions and establish new ones, retrofitting teaching base, including development of sports infrastructure, change in qualifications of teaching staff as well as investments in education infrastructure. The article presents an analysis of activities carried out using EU funds in three selected communes in the Łódzkie Voivodship, in the selected three rural communes: Drużbice, Grabów and Kowiesy, in the period 2006–2013 with respect to statistics on different implemented projects for the corresponding period and selected areas of education inequality.
- Public libraries in Poland are diversified. Some are repositories of knowledge allowing for in-depth study with vast and continually updated resources. The average citizen is served by a large network of libraries supported by local governments. Their basic task is to supply 'books to read' and to conduct educational-cultural activity. The aim of this study was to determine the significance of functions that libraries perform in the rural environment of Poland. The assessment was made on the basis of an analysis of the Central Statistical Office (GUS) data and reports derived from the Libraries Development Programme. This programme has been implemented in Poland since 2009 by the Foundation for the Development of Information Society and the Polish-American Liberty Foundation, which is a partner of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in a venture helping Polish public libraries with access to computers, the Internet and training courses. It was assumed that libraries serving rural population were those located in villages and towns of up to 20 thous. inhabitants. In Poland the accessibility of libraries as measured by the population number per library continues to decline, both in towns and rural areas. In 2002 this index amounted to 2,118, opposed to 2,555 in 2013. Two factors are responsible: a drop in the number of libraries and a slight increase in the population living in rural areas. There is no doubt that preserving a network of libraries in rural areas in Poland is necessary. Local governments are not generous patrons of libraries; on the contrary, they often liquidate them to reduce the costs of commune operation. Rural libraries prefer the educational function, thus replacing the school education system, but this takes place at the cost of their cultural functions. The model of the rural library as a centre of all kinds of information where one can learn practically everything – favoured in the western states – is still far from popular in Poland.
- Public policies to protect natural environments are becoming increasingly integrated in many countries. However, in some countries, nature management policies do not pay much attention to issues raised by local populations, especially development issues. These seem often incompatible with the logic of protection of nature defended by the national administrations. Recent studies show that there are ways to make these issues compatible. The knowledge on this subject is still weak for the southern shore of the Mediterranean region. Our study focuses on the case of a natural park located in the northeast of Algeria: the sector of the El Kala National Park (EKNP). This territory faces a double strategic ambition: to strengthen the protection of nature but also to develop the agricultural economy and tourism. Our method relies on the analysis of 3 types of data: national statistics of Algeria, conservation and development strategy documents and satellite data. Our study shows an increase in the area of EKNP vegetation between 1995 and 2005.
- The purpose hereof is to present changes in the land use structure (with particular regard to agricultural land) in Poland in the first two decades of the 21st century. In the research procedure, close attention has been paid to the spatial aspects of the changes taking place. The analysis conducted at a national, provincial and communal level covered the period between 2002 and 2020 and was based on the materials made available by GUGiK in Warsaw. Political changes, as well as social and economic transformation have initiated profound changes in land use and the ownership system. Nowadays, these are also triggered by urbanisation processes and ageing of the agricultural population. Changes in the agricultural land resources and transformation in the land use structure identified in Poland are to a large extent associated with the applicable legislation that governs, inter alia, issues relating to the splitting of farms and to the agricultural land transactions. Unfortunately, the provisions thereof have been repeatedly amended, which has in no way been beneficial to the rational use of the agricultural land resources. Changes in the agricultural land resources have affected both farms and other forms of ownership. Agricultural land is considered as a kind of reservoir of land for investments Due to, in particular, the development of transport and housing needs in Poland, further agricultural land shrinkage is expected. It is necessary to ensure sustainable agricultural land management and to monitor changes in the land use structure.
- The purpose of the EU cohesion policy is to reduce disparities at the level of economic, social and spatial development of the underdeveloped regions. The Europe 2020 Strategy establishesmore growth- and innovation-oriented investments. The main objective of this paper is to analyze and evaluate the differences and dynamics of the EU regions at the NUTS 2 level, characterized by the selected variables in the economic, social and territorial accessibility (transport infrastructure) area to determine the clusters of different levels of disparities in the EU regions (HDI) and transport infrastructure as well as to examine their interdependence. Calculations were based on statistical data acquired from Eurostat databases. The results confirm a distinctively clear inequality of economic development in the European regional space between Central and Eastern Europe as well as Northern and Western Europe regions, with the highest growth of dynamics identified in the regions of the countries that joined the EU in 2007 and 2004. The analysis also identifies the European regions with a high level of spatial cohesion (accessibility) and validates the thesis about the presence of interdependence between the EU regional development and spatial cohesion (accessibility) of the regions.
- The purpose of the following paper is to debate the cross-border shopping tourism activities taking place at the external borders of the European Union in Poland and Romania. The work focuses on a comparative analyses of three borders from Poland and three borders from Romania. They had a similar history, underwent a period of political and economic transformation and both countries joined the EU in a short space of time. The research is composed from a theoretical and empirical approach. The theoretical research results show similarities in the evolutions of cross-border shopping tourism activities from both countries. The empirical research updates the situation of cross-border shopping tourism activities. The results show a different evolution of this kind of tourism activities, which has been more predominant at the Polish borders than at the Romanian border, mainly motivated by the stronger market differences existing between Poland and its neighbours, than between Romania and its neighbours. The economic motivators are still strong with a focus of customers on better price benefits and discount opportunities. The leisure elements, although not predominant are present, mainly in Poland, the customers being mainly motivated by the pleasure emerged from the shopping activity. In terms of shopping, the dominant role is played by the shopping, in their old forms (bazaar, local market or a transformed department stores) or their new forms (commercial centres or malls), increasingly incorporating also elements of leisure.
- The purpose of the study is to assess changes concerning main determinants of rural and urban inhabitants’ life quality in the period after Poland’s accession to the European Union (years 2006–2017). The study was conducted basing on results of the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) and household budgets of the Central Statistical Office of Poland. Assessment of rural population’s life quality was based on indicators characterizing the unbiased living conditions (income, expenses, infrastructure, environment, housing and furnishings) as well as subjective evaluation. However, in assessing the life quality, environmental and climatic advantages of rural areas were not taken into account. Basic indicators relate to individuals or households. Life quality in rural areas is lower than in urban ones, which is primarily due to inferior income of rural residents. Furthermore, the level of expenditure is lower, mainly regarding high rank needs. Rural areas are characterized by lower equipment in basic technical infrastructure and durable – especially modern goods – in comparison to urban areas. Inhabitants of rural areas subjectively assess their life quality to be worse than the urban population. They also believe that possibility of satisfying their needs is lower than in cities.
- The purpose of the study is to determine the specificity and scope of the rural renewal concept depending on the nature of research hybridization. The starting point and point of reference in the following sections of the discussion is settlement geography - geographical discipline with a very long tradition and unquestionable research achievements as well as cognitive and applied values. In each case, the contribution of settlement geography to the development of transdisciplinary research and the understanding of rural renewal within them are underlined. The next link to consider should be treated as an original research project associating geographic knowledge with the one produced in contact with other disciplines. A complementary element, embedded in the structure of the study is the description of four research problems that should be considered as examples of good geographical practices. These are the possibilities for using different concepts in the development of a comprehensive rural renewal research program from the perspective of settlement geography
- The purpose of the study, whose results are reported in the present paper, was to assess the changes in the spatial accessibility, resulting from the realisation of large road investment projects in Poland in the period 2004–2013. Attention was primarily focused on changes in overall accessibility and on investment projects, constituting three chosen case studies. The method, selected for the measurement of the level of spatial accessibility and of its changes, was based on the indicator of potential accessibility. Each analysis was carried out in parallel in three dimensions: European, national, and regional. It was stated that the improvement in the international and national accessibility, which took place in Poland due to the road projects, was highly uneven in space. It was determined by the location of the routes constructed and the distribution of the demographic potential in space. The resulting distribution of accessibility became more polarised, this being inevitable in the situation of undertaking numerous projects within a short time. The projects realised served more the international and inter-metropolitan connections, while their influence on the improvement of the situation within the provinces was smaller. The study confirmed the earlier apprehensions that the motorways might produce the “tunnel effect” (understood as limitation of the service to uniquely the long-distance connections). This sort of threat is decidedly smaller in the case of the expressways. It was also demonstrated that the correct location of the nodes might have a perceptible impact on the spatial reach of the positive effects from the projects.
- The purpose of the work detailed here was to reveal the diurnal variability characterising values for air temperature and vapour pressure in Poland. To this end, reference was made to meteorological data – concerning air temperature (°C) and water vapour pressure (hPa) – derived from eight observation terms over the period 1991-2000, and from the Polish cities of Koszalin, Białystok, Poznań, Warsaw, Wrocław and Rzeszów. These data were used to calculate average diurnal values for each of these meteorological elements, with graphs constructed to show the averaged daily courses for air temperature and water vapour pressure, as well as the course of averaged diurnal extreme values and amplitudes in regard to both elements, together with the hours associated with them. All analyses were carried out for consecutive ten-day periods of the year. Because of the uneven changes in the variables throughout the daytime, extreme values for air temperature and water vapour pressure were approximated using an asymmetric function. The diurnal courses to thermal and humidity conditions in the Polish cities under study are found to be characterised by a certain variability, both temporally and spatially. In particular, there are significantly fewer instances of stable weather conditions during the summer season, than in winter. The hours of occurrence of air temperature minima depend on the season. In winter they occur much later, about 5-6 a.m., while in the warm half of the year they are noted at approximately 2 a.m. Diurnal maxima for air temperature appear around the same time of day, usually at about 1 p.m. year-round. Analysis of the spatial structure characterising variability in diurnal air temperature showed SE Poland (Rzeszów) to be the warmest region in summer during daytime hours. Summer nights are hottest in the south-west (Wrocław) and middle part of Poland (Warsaw). In winter, the privileged stations in respect of thermal conditions are Wrocław and Koszalin, during daytime hours and at night respectively. The diurnal course sees water vapour pressure rise during the hours of daytime, and decrease at night. In turn, annual variability is characterised by significant summer increases and winter decreases. In the summer, the diurnal courses for water vapour pressure are characterised by the presence of two minima and two maxima per day. The first diurnal minimum is usually recorded in the morning, between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m., albeit slightly later in winter, while the second, appearing in the warm season, is observed between 12 a.m. and 4 p.m. In the case of the diurnal maximum, the first, is more seasonally dependent than the minimum, in that it occurs between noon and 4 p.m. in winter, most often around 8 a.m. A second one is noted between 4 and 8 p.m. The spatial range of occurrence of different values for water vapour pressure points to a rise in the western part of the country in the cool half of the year, while south-eastern Poland is more privileged in this regard in the summer.
- The purpose of the work is to determine the significance of the distance from the urban agglomeration for historical land use changes in two selected rural areas, located in the close vicinity of Kraków. The aim was also to analyze changes in the borders of the studied villages. The research was carried out in four stages. The first stage consisted in the acquisition and preparation of data on the land use structure in 1848, 1880, and 2016 for two research facilities (Kryspinów and Kaszów). The selection of objects located peripherally to Kraków allowed to study changes in land cover in the period of 1848‑2016 and an attempt to assess the impact of distance from the city on the direction and dynamics of land use change in rural areas. In the second stage, the analysis of administrative borders of examined cities was conducted. The third stage consisted in analyzing land use changes based on the cartographic part of the so-called Franciscan cadastre, created in the first half of the 19th century for the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The source of information for 1880 was the Geographical Dictionary of the Slavic Countries. Modern data was obtained from the Topographic Database (BDOT10k). In the fourth stage, the research was summarized. The analysis of spatial land use changes was carried out using geoprocessing tools. A descriptive-comparative method and simple statistical methods were also employed. It was confirmed that changes in land use take place more intensively in the villages in the close vicinity to Kraków. Less significant changes were noted in the next distance zone, in which the area was not subject to direct pressure from the suburbanisation process. Observed historical changes in land use confirm the generally observed tendency related to the growth of built-up and urbanized areas, wasteland and lands sheltered at the expense of farmland in the Małopolskie Voivodeship.
- The purpose of this article is to examine the status of the Ukrainian-Polish bilateral trade links, to identify regional characteristics and disparities in the Ukrainian commodity trade with Poland. The place of Poland in the geographical structure of commodity exports and imports with regard to Ukrainian regions has been studied. Balance and connectivity coefficients of commodity trade with Poland have been calculated for 25 regions of Ukraine. Regionally influenced differentiations between the Ukrainian and Polish regional commodity trade links have been revealed. The groups of Ukrainian regions have been determined on the basis of the level of their commodity trade balance and type of external trade links with Poland.
- The purpose of this article is to present changes in capability and quality of human capital and to assess the impact of implementing ESF co-financed interventions in improving the quality of human resources. An important element of the work was the genesis of research in the subject of human capital as one of the most important economic resources. For this purpose, a review of economic theories regarding the importance and role of human capital in socio-economic development of the country and region was conducted. The areas of study comprised Northern and Western Poland and East Germany. To evaluate the quality of human capital demographic (population growth, migration) and social elements (employment, economic dependency ratio, unemployment) were considered. Conducted research allowed for identification of rural human capital growth areas and potential problem areas.
- The purpose of this paper is analyse 25-years of organisational-ownership transformation involving the national road carriers in Poland (PKS), Czechia and Slovakia (ČSAD), and Hungary (Volán). Included in this issue, Part I of this two-part work embraces the origin and development of the national road carriers in question, the legal frameworks and conditions underpinning their privatisation, and the characteristics of the transformations affecting haulier enterprises engaged in the carriage of freight by road. Part II, which will appear in issue 2/2017 of Przegląd Geograficzny, will focus on the transformations involving bus and coach companies in the Visegrad Group (V4) countries. A common feature of all the national carriers involved in road transport has been the co-occurrence within one public-service entity of both passenger traffic and the carriage of freight. This feature in fact placed enterprises of this kind in a disadvantageous position in comparison with those engaged in carriage that are commercial companies dedicated to a narrow group of customers connected with one branch of the economy. Another common feature is an origin in the late 1920s or 1930s that reflects a reaction of state railways joined by rapidly-arising competition from private road transport. The processes leading to the establishment of the different national road carriers were also similar in the countries of the group. A somewhat analogous situation can be observed in many restructuring processes within about 40-years of the centrally planned economies. The first period of ownership transformation in V4 countries can be regarded as chaotic ‘grass-roots’ privatisation involving companies engaged in freight carriage at the most. Disadvantageous experiences resulting from uncontrolled ‘grass roots’ privatisation initiatives (taking over fortunes and customers) have caused the privatisation processes to be placed within certain frameworks. The structure of national road transport companies was very much differentiated at the outset. Some countries like Slovakia have separated freight and passenger traffic completely, while others introduced a mixed variant. In fact, the situation in Poland was the resultant of both solutions: on the one hand there are companies engaging in the carriage of freight, while on the other there are also bus/coach companies likewise involved in goods traffic. Each of the V4 countries has taken a different approach to ownership transformation, though some processes can be observed in all countries, while others only in single countries. The involvement of staff in these processes has been different. In Poland alone, there was a special ‘path’ by which crews may buy into privatised companies. A somewhat similar solution involving worker participation has also been applied in Hungary, too. The restructuring and privatisation of freight transport in each country involved the application of different solutions. Thus, in Poland and Slovakia, numerous companies engaged in freight transport have been established. In Czechia and Hungary such companies have also been present, rather as an exception than a rule. However, complete separation of freight and passenger traffic has not proved to be a great success, since a majority of the freight companies, even the ones that have been privatised, have been closed down. This is the case in Poland, where an intermediate, multi-year stage of freight carriers existing as single-personality Treasury companies could be observed. Privatisation started much later there than in other V4 countries, but in 2015 only single independent companies engaged in the carriage of freight existed – a circumstance that speaks against such a process.
- The purpose of this paper is to give some insight into the state of the art where cooperation between transport and tourism is concerned, and to outline possible future prospects. In particular, five roles of transport in contemporary tourism and recreation (after Hall, 2008) are described and commented on. These include: (1) linking the source market with the host destination; (2) providing mobility and access within a destination area/region/country; (3) providing mobility and access within an actual tourism attraction; (4) facilitating travel along a recreational route which is itself the tourism experience; and (5) providing limited movement or even being static, while acting as the focus of recreational and heritage interest, as in museums or at rallies (with forms of transport located at a particular place). In the literature, the first two roles prove to be relatively well-researched, while the remaining three are in need of further investigation. All the roles are here illustrated by relevant examples from real-world situations, including in Poland. Further on, the paper offers a broad presentation of modes of transport used in tourism and recreation, including air transport, passenger transport by water (cruise tourism and ferries), and ground-based transport (by rail and road). Each mode of transport referred to presents certain specifics, has various determinants, merits and inconveniences, fulfils different functions and purposes, and is dedicated to differing groups of tourists. For example, following deregulation and liberalisation, air transport has changed radically as low-cost carriers made their appearance, and there was a relative decline in charter traffic, as well as a general lowering of costs and fares among full-service operators. However, there are found to be great differences between the more affluent, well-developed markets and the emerging markets in this respect. The role of cruising, although still relatively meagre in absolute terms, is growing very fast around the world. In contrast, within the ground-based transport context, the role of rail is in steady decline, while road transport, and especially individual motoring, grows steadily. A comparison of the worldwide situation with that in the former communist countries (as exemplified by Poland) points to some differences in tourism transport, mainly in connection with the affluence of societies. Certain features thus point to specific features of the CEECs not always in line with regularities in the wider world overall.
- The purpose of this study is to clarify whether and how historical factors may play a role in shaping religious practices, along with modern urbanisation and modernisation. The analyses used unique data on attendance at Mass over the 2016-2018 period, as counted in all 10,000 parishes in Poland. The data were analysed by historically conditioned regions, and by modern types of area as related to the intensity of urbanisation and metropolisation processes. The level of participation in religious practice is shown to be rooted historically (embedded) in the local environment, with the highest level characterising areas of eastern and southern Poland (the former Galicia and Congress Kingdom). Most regions manifest decreased participation over time where the degree of urbanisation and metropolisation goes on growing, but there remain significant differences between historically-conditioned regions for areas with a similar degree of urbanisation, including between large cities. On this basis, a model for spatial (historico-geographical) determinants of religious practices in Poland was developed, in line with analyses that represent the first detailed research into the diversity of Catholic parishes to ever be based on such a large and geographically-detailed research sample. <br>
- The purpose of this study is to present a description of the course of the COVID-19 epidemic in Poland in the space-time dimension in the period from March 15th to August 8th 2020. The result of the conducted research is a presentation of the regional differentiation of the course of the epidemic in Poland, the comparison of the intensity of SARS-CoV-2 infections in particular voivodeships, the determination of the degree of similarity in the course of the pandemic development process in individual regions (voivodeships) of the country, and also the indication of the factors which could be taken into account when attempting to explain the interregional differences in the course of the epidemic. The conducted research shows, among other things, that: (1) in terms of time, the development of the epidemic was generally monotonic, however the increase in new infections was rather cyclical, (2) in the spatial dimension, the development of the epidemic was rather random, although the greatest number of infections was characteristic of the most populated regions of the country, (3) the level of infections in Poland was mainly positively influenced by: population density, working in industry, people beyond retirement, age as well as a poorly developed material base of inpatient care.
- The quality of a given bioclimate is much affected by the atmospheric environment (taken to include solar radiation, air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and levels of atmospheric pollution), as well as by geographical factors relating to topography and cover, the drainage system and land use (Owczarek 2009, Czarnecka, Nidzgorska-Lencewicz 2010, Koźmiński, Michalska 2011, Owczarek 2012). Tourists staying in a coastal area must contend with considerable variability of weather from one day to another, or even hour by hour, in the cold half-year in particular. Changes of weather have a profound effect on the human organism, inter alia giving rise to migraines, sleep disturbances and hypersensitivity. The work described here sought to assess temporal (inter alia seasonal) and spatial variability to heat loading of the human organism characterising the Polish Baltic coastal zone, as well as the temperature of water by beaches. It was to achieve this kind of assessments of bioclimate and its impact on the human organism that the index known as the UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index) was devised, taking in air temperature, wind speed, air humidity and absorbed solar radiation (expressed as mean radiant temperature) (Błażejczyk & Kunert, 2011). This index represents objective changes in physiological parameters of the human organism occurring thanks to differing environmental conditions as determined in relation to a 10-point scale for heat loading of the human organism (°C) that translate into descriptive terms ranging from extreme heat stress to extreme cold stress. UTCI values referred to here were calculated using BioKlima 2.6 software - http://www.igipz.pan.pl/Bioklima-zgik.html. Six zones for the heat loading of the human organism found to be present along the Polish coast during the four seasons of the year were designated by summing the frequency of occurrence of days with a particularly stimulating effect, be this severe or very severe heat stress or severe, very severe or extreme cold stress. The UTCI-based analysis sustained conclusions as follows: - The Polish Baltic coast is found to be characterised by marked day-to-day variability in the heat loading of the human organism, particularly in the November-late May period, with the result being a significant “nuisance” represented for tourists. - Along the western part of the coast and in the area of the Bay of Puck, conditions thermoneutral for the human organism were found to dominate (accounting for more than 60% of the days in a month) over the whole period from May through to mid-October. In the case of the northern part of the coast from Darłowo to Łeba the same was found to be true of the period extending from June through to the middle ten-day period of September, creating conditions favourable for outdoor recreation. - The duration of the bathing season with mean monthly water temperatures ≥18°C is of approximately 45 days along the coast from Darłowo to Łeba, 46-50 days in the central part of the coast, 46-60 days in the area of the Bay of Gdańsk and 61-70 in the area of the Bay of Pomerania. In most years under analysis, there was no identification of a bathing season with mean monthly water temperature ≥18°C in the Kołobrzeg and Władysławowo areas. - The bioclimatic conditions most favourable for recreation and tourism were identified for the area of the Bay of Pomerania, followed by the Bay of Gdańsk. Less-favourable conditions characterise the central part of the coast, while the least favourable circumstances extend through the northern area from Darłowo to Łeba, in which the bioclimate’s stimulatory effect is strongest.- The high spatial variability characterising heat loading of the human organism that it proved possible to identify for the Polish coast offers the possibility of particular regions and seasons being selected for recreation, in relation to tourists’ health status and specific requirements.
- The quality of life and the residential environment in an urban space are considerably influenced by Green Infrastructure. This results from the growing ecological awareness of society and the greater importance attached to the quality of the surrounding environment. Such an approach influences the city’s image and its perception with respect to the quality of life. Olsztyn is an example of a city with exceptionally rich natural environmental assets, located in the cleanest region of Poland. The city is developing in line with the “Olsztyn: the Garden City” slogan. The objective of the article is to compare the results of a public opinion poll among city dwellers with respect to the quality of life in terms of natural environment resources.
- Quality of life is an extraordinarily multidimensional term. It includes both objective and subjective factors. This article reviews the quality of life of an extremely sensitive group – people over the age of 65, based on data from the pan-European SHARE survey (Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe). The survey revealed the disparities in the quality of life of seniors regarding material, health, social and emotional dimensions in 16 European countries. According to the European survey of the evaluation of the quality of life of seniors, those living in Western and Northern European countries are more satisfied with the quality of their life. Generally, it has become apparent that quality of life is interlinked with the institutional framework of the country, family support and individual approaches. Countries in Southern and Eastern Europe have lower values in individual dimensions as well as in the aggregate quality of life index.
- There are many different domains of science whose elaborated theoretical concepts assume that development (understood in terms of the definite succession of processes and transformations (Taylor and Flint, 2000; Domański, 2005) is of a cyclical nature. Among these concepts, the one entailing generation cycles looks most convincing. Thus, in the view of co-authors William Strauss and Neil Howe (1991, 1997), social change is driven by generation cycles of 15-25 years’ duration, albeit coming together into phases some 80 years long termed saecula. M. Alexander in turn maintains that a saeculum corresponds to one Kondratieff cycle, and has also designated 36-year paradigmatic cycles identical to those found for the New York Stock Exchange. The latter are shown to comprise approximately two Strauss-Howe cycles. It is in turn Wojciech Białek (2009) who has applied the term “generation cycle” to these cycles of roughly 36 years’ duration, given that this length of time concurs with geneticists’ recently established average difference in age between consecutive generations (Tremblay and Vezina, 2000). Where the historical experience of Polish society is concerned, the existence of a 30-40 year generation cycle governing political and cultural life would not represent a truly new discovery. Norman Davies (1984, 1995) notes that: “There is no doubt that the wheel of political fortune in nineteenth-century Poland revolved with a regularity beyond the bounds of mere coincidence”. In his opinion, therefore: “strong credence must be given to the idea that the regular alternation of the two dominant ideologies was closely associated with the rise and fall of successive generations”. (…) “Neither Romantics nor Positivists could ever enjoy a run of more than three or four decades before disillusionment and failure destroyed their supremacy, and gave an opening for the revival of their opponents”. The cyclical character of definite processes observed under both Polish and American conditions in fact emerges as of a universal nature, finding its analogies throughout the world, though first and foremost within the European cultural circle. It is also possible to speak of its far reaching synchronicity, encompassing change on both local and global scales. This is witnessed by successive culminations of cycles with the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, the revolutionary surges of the 1830s and 1840s, the events of the 1860s and 1870s, the turbulences and wars of the early 20th century (notably World War I), then World War II, the great transformations of the 1980s, and the recently observed increase in political tension in various parts of the world (e.g. t e Middle East, Ukraine, etc.). In the economic sphere the symptoms are shifts in the business climate, which can even be calculated by reference to quantitative indicators. Then, in the sphere of culture, it is possible to denote successive periods in literature and the arts. In the political sphere in turn, events that shape the state or territorial order are to be observed readily. The present article thus seeks to propose the existence of a universal and synchronous 36-year generation cycle, which manifests itself in real symptoms in the world of politics, and for instance in the cyclicity seen to characterise intensit of change on the political map of Europe.
- There are regions in Europe that are particularly vulnerable both environmentally and socially. Hungary’s Sand Ridge in the Danube Tisza Interfluve (Homokhátság in Hungarian) is considered such a region. The water balance of these lowland landscapes has been negative for decades, and complex ecological and social problems have escalated in parallel with aridification. Therefore, this region deserves special attention from the territorial development perspective. Over the last two decades, our successive studies have revealed that development policies in the region have been unsuccessful on multiple occasions, unable to alter the core negative trends significantly. We also noticed the mistakes and inertness of spatial planning when we worked on our current applied research: the Sand Ridge Regional Development Concept and Program. This study aims to explore deficiencies and shortcomings of the spatial policy and identify the factors that have slowed territorial development. Insights from interviews with experts and surveys conducted with local municipalities highlight that access to European Union funds has not alleviated long-standing conflicts. Resource-driven and uniform planning has become one of the main hindering factors. According to the experts, the necessary complex programs have not been implemented, and many initiatives have stalled. They also expressed concerns that Sand Ridge’s natural and social endangerment will continue to increase. <br>
- There is now a renaissance of interest in Poland’s urban regions, including the Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) and this can be considered due to a change from the administrative and sectoral approach dominating planning for regional development in the direction of a functional one. This paper presents an overview of the concepts related to FUAs and related issues, as well as methods referred to in the Polish literature when it comes to the delimitation of urban-related areas. It then goes on to propose a new delimitation of urban functional areas extending to the entire territory of the country. FUAs were delimited as nodal regions on the basis of a criterion of functional linkage – commuting and migration exchange (population check-in and check-out), using the additional criterion of maximum temporal distance. The results of the prepared means of drawing distinctions showed how the daily life of Poland's population is organised in relation to a relatively large number of diverse "micro-regions." The number of classified FUAs (413) is similar to the number of county-level administrative units known as poviats (380), while these units are characterised by different sizes and spatial extents. The work is in line with the demand for those engaging in spatial and strategic planning to think in terms of functional areas.
- There is still no consensus on the definition of urban governance, which can be attributed to gaps in its empirical foundation across both time and space. The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1867-1918), with its complex state structure, serves as an ideal historical and geographical subject for unveiling aspects related to the birth of modern urban governance within a Central European context. To conduct comparative research, this study examines selected cities from two territorial autonomies of the empire: Zagreb, Osijek, Varaždin, and Zemun from Croatia-Slavonia, and Lviv and Cracow (Krakow) from Galicia. Urban governance within territorial autonomy, particularly from a historical standpoint, is a unique subject that lacks a substantial presence in the literature of urban studies and territorial autonomy. In this paper, an analytical framework was developed based on the key components of the transformation thesis of urban governance and metagovernance theory. The findings of the study indicate that the process of designating territorial autonomies and the various political factors behind them significantly shaped the formation of urban governance systems. <br>
- There is wide recognition that urban green space provides city residents with considerable benefits, inter alia of an environmental, economic and health-related profile. However, the different types of urban greenery include a rather large proportion taking the form of vegetation on abandoned sites that remain uncultivated, to the extent that a plant cover develops without much active human involvement. Almost by definition, there is only a poor level of recognition of the ecological potential such sites (here referred to as “informal green spaces” – IGS) enjoy, or of their capacity to render a variety of different ecosystem services. Against that background, the work presented here entailed in-depth study of the flora and plant communities present in Warsaw’s informal green spaces, the aim being to better ascertain their role in preserving biodiversity and delivering ecosystem services. Specifically, we identified the plant species composition present at 75 different locations within the urban green space of Poland’s capital city. To qualify for consideration, these sites had to be identified as entirely bereft of vegetation maintenance, or else only minimally subject to it, to the extent that it is largely processes of natural succession that are ongoing. The sites in fact range from wastelands with stabilised vegetation, via urban scrub and forest, through to non-forest habitats, sporadically cultivated and established over 20 years. We determined the density of vegetation present, and examined its structure in relation to various known classes of green space. We further determined the role of various vegetation types in rendering ecosystem services, be that surface cooling, substrate moisture maintenance or a capacity to remove particulate matter from the air. The informal green spaces we investigated are in fact found to comprise mainly-stable forest communities dominated by invasive species of tree (phytosociological Classes Robinietea and Salicetea purpureae), as well as non-forest communities (of Classes Molinio-Arrhenatheretea, Epilobietea and Artemisietea) again largely dominated by invasive plant species. The level of biodiversity here is average, it mostly being common forest and non-forest species that are preserved. However, in exceptional cases, the habitats constituted here do support species rare on a regional scale. It emerges that the forest vegetation is of weakly-diversified structure, as a reflection of the specific strategy invasive species pursue as they form monospecific communities. As noted already, the vegetation of the informal green spaces is seen to be largely dominated by such invasive species. Nevertheless, despite their evidently limited role in preserving biodiversity, these sites represent such a high density and volume of vegetation that their provisioning of ecosystem services is on a high level, especially where forest plant communities are involved. Sites that have come to be dominated by invasive plant species are shown to render ecosystem services comparable with (or sometimes even surpassing) those provided by native species, and this is especially the case when it comes to the removal of particulate matter from air and the exerting of a cooling effect.
- Recently in Poland there has been an intensive process of transforming the economic structure of rural areas, which manifests itself, inter alia, in changing the occupational structure of its inhabitants. Development of non-agricultural ways of farming in rural areas leads to creation of rural areas of multifunctional character, with population growth, where the role of agriculture as a source of income of inhabitants is decreasing. On the other hand, in the marginal areas, with still dominant agricultural function, there is a significant population loss. One of the effects of the observed process are changes in rural settlements. The aim of the presented research is to deepen the existing knowledge on the evolution of spatial distribution of rural population depending on the level of socio-economic development of the region and structural features of the level achieved. The authors used research conducted within the framework of monitoring rural development in Poland. They compared them with the statistical database of the Central Statistical Office, which made it possible to distinguish growing and depopulating villages. The results of the study confirmed that the spatial differentiation of population in rural areas undergoes constant evolution and its effect is a decrease of population in areas located far from larger cities and an increase in suburban areas.
- Recently, it has been claimed that spatial inequalities in Hungary had by far not reduced, but signifi cantly increased since 1990. The inefficiency of Hungarian regional development in the reduction of spatial inequalities, in the past two decades has been caused by several different reasons. Functional deficiency of the local institutions of the regional development network is one of the most characteristic reasons, which led to this situation. Network members at the next planning turnover should be able to change the attitudes catalyse the changes necessary, being able to contribute to the realisation of a planning practice based on community development.
- Recently, marginal lands have been attracting attention as areas of high cultural and natural value that are undergoing profound, uncontrolled transformations. These changes are seen as a threat to the cohesion and identity of existing landscapes. However, ongoing processes are often difficult to interpret and evaluate without a long-term historical perspective. Here, we focused on understanding the long-term landscape dynamics in the depopulated and economically marginalized Wiar River basin, where 87% of inhabitants were displaced after World War II. A detailed, spatially explicit land-cover analysis based on eight series of topographic data (dating from 1780 to 2017), in line with the review of archival sources and literature, allowed us for identification of patterns and drivers of change. We linked the driving forces and the resulting landscape properties to four distinct historical periods (i.e. pre-industrial, industrial, socialist, and free-market). We demonstrated how the landscape of 25 villages, dominated for centuries by open farmland, shifted after WWII into extensively forested, and that not all regions in Europe follow the pattern of increasing rate of land-cover change.
- Recently Montenegro has often been faced with extreme weather events. The aim of this paper is to provide a detailed synoptic analysis of a severe weather event, a waterspout, and to confirm an indication that in most cases such events could potentially be forecasted, which is of great practical significance, since human lives and property can be saved. The paper presents the research results of synoptic and mesoscale weather conditions which created a favourable meteorological environment for a waterspout development in Tivat (Montenegrin coast) on June 9, 2018, around 01 UTC (03 CET). Based on field survey analysis, the rating of tornado intensity by the Fujita scale (F-scale) has been done by assessing the damage. The synoptic type for this situation was CLOSED-SW and was determined by a detailed examination of atmospheric circulation. The results presented in the manuscript can help decision makers in Montenegro to take certain adaptation measures (above all, in tourism and construction) in order to mitig te the negative consequences of weather extremes.
- Regeneration of centrally located city areas has been increasingly more often undertaken as a regeneration megaproject exercise. In European cities there are vast post-railway areas, which, if transformed, can produce morphological and functional changes. Against this background, investigating demolition as part of transformation of the existing spatial and functional structures is an interesting option. Transformations proposed for the downtown area of Vienna previously occupied by the Wien Südbahnhof railway station include the reconstruction of 109 ha formerly used exclusively by railway sector operators. The research problem boils down to the question: what was the course of demolition of the area covered by modernisation works carried out as a megaproject and how has it transformed space organisation on the spot? The paper analyses the sequence of urban renewal initiated in Vienna in the area adjacent to the new Wien Hauptbahnhof railway station and identifies the outcomes of the process. Regeneration project triggered the decision to completely demolish all elements of the existing railway infrastructure and to reconstruct it anew on a much smaller area. Recuperated post-railway land was made available to housing developers, as well as to service facilities and leisure projects, which expand central area of the city.
- The region of Western Sudetes is one of the most popular tourist areas in Poland. Simultaneously, it is also characterized by significant variability in terms of climate conditions. Therefore, the main goal of the analysis was to evaluate variability in heat stress frequency according to UTCI and examine how it corresponds to the results of the tourism-climate index (WSI). The results for both indices, for 1971-2015 data, showed significant differences between the summit and the lower located mountain zones. Analysis on multiannual trends of UTCI classes showed significant increase in the frequency of thermoneutral conditions and decreasing tendency for cold stress categories.
- Regional development is largely determined by both the quality and quantity of internal resources, as well as the degree to which these are being utilized. Local resources represent unique – and socially and economically utilizable – features, factors and phenomena in a given area capable of forming its internal development potential. Among these one may differentiate material and non-material resources, with a further divide into groups and types. The overriding research objective was to identify the structure of local resources in three regions of eastern Poland, and to assess their development potential. For this purpose, research procedure assumed evaluating local assets referring to their utility and uniqueness, by the means of constructed indicators. The study showed that majority of resources were of average utilitarian and uniqueness value, often characterized by considerable spatial differentiation. Several types of prevailing resources were identified including architectural forms and buildings, as well as those related to tourism attractiveness. Resources with the greatest impact on enhancing local development tend to be of considerable uniqueness. On the other hand, there is a group of highly-unique resources characterized by confined utility regarding the practical point of view. This may attest to the still-untapped potential of local resources in researched regions.
- The regional policy pursued today is based on actions aimed at integrated development of local government units, including more aspects of functional and spatial connections. It leads to a change in the approach to the assessment of local capital available in rural areas in a broad sense. One of the specific examples of rural areas where the potential of creation depends on endogenous and exogenous factors are the suburban areas which, according to the new paradigm, are called cities functional areas. The article attempts to assess the developmental disparities resulting from the potential of the resources available in the areas of interaction of the two urban centres: Wrocław and Kielce. Regions selected for the purpose of a comparison are characterised by different demographic and economic potential conditions, as well as by the different conditions and historical location. What they have in common is the administrative functionality, which results from the rank of province capital. The article aimed at establishing the main determinants of rural development within the range of the strongest influence of the urban center. For the study adopted 18 municipalities in the zone of influence of the central city (after 9 for each center). Time range assumed for 2002 and 2014. Diagnostic variables were divided into 3 categories of local capital: social resources; economic resources; and spatial resources. The research process showed slight disproportions in terms of baseline year (2002) between the units constituting each suburban area. Municipalities centered around Kielce and Wroclaw were characterised by a similar level (assessment based on synthetic index) mainly forspatial resources. In the case of economic and social resources disproportions were higher but they do not have a significant influence on the final assessment of its potential. Data analysis in 2014 showed an increase in disparities of development in almost all of the analysed areas. This in turn contributed to the final assessment of the actual level of socio-economic changes in the suburban areas. As noticed in the article, the transformations in the areas bordering with Wrocław and Kielce were generated mainly by changes in the area of social and economic resources. The dynamics and scope of this transformation was faster in the influence zone of Wrocław. Therefore, it has been indicated that the level of socio-economic changes is to a larger extent a result of the size and range of central city and, thus, the relations between the city and its immediate surroundings.
- Regional socio-economic inequality is a major threat of instability in northeast Europe. The polarisation-equalization dynamics has a direct influence over the distribution of population, industry, financial resources, environmental load, and other domains of the Baltic region. The research scope covers an area of nine countries, including the Baltic coast of Germany, Poland, and north-western Russia. Official data of Eurostat and Rosstat are used to evaluate the relationship between a number of statistical indicators over a period of 2000-2016. Research results reveal an inverse correlation between the volume of GRP per capita generated and the rate of its increase, as well as between GRP per capita and population change. A less significant direct correlation between population density and the rate of population increase found. Results emphasise cross-country differences in polarisation and equalization processes and stress that the population of the Baltic region is increasingly concentrating in capital cities. The latter is especially evident in countries with a relatively small population size. An important factor affecting the development of international cooperation in the Baltic region and national economic growth is the high economic growth rates in the less economically developed countries. The article puts forward arguments in favour of regional equalization and advocates against polarisation strategy, including special measures to stimulate growth of urban agglomerations.
- The relationship between growing rates of urbanisation and city warming has been evaluated in a very large number of urban climate studies. The work detailed here has focused on remote-sensing data, looking at changes in urbanisation over time in one of the newest cities in Brazil, i.e. Palmas in the northern region of the country, which serves as capital city of Tocantins. The youngest state in Brazil, Tocantins was only founded in 1988, with the construction of Palmas as capital commencing in 1989. Measured meteorological data were used to assess local climate changes in typical years, whereas urbanisation levels, generated for stepwise increments of 10 years, were obtained from the identification of vegetated and built-up classes in satellite imagery. Results suggest that changes in local climate were not always related to ongoing urbanisation in Palmas. Equally, despite promising changes in patterns of distribution of vegetation in given areas of Palmas over time – with an increase in high NDVI levels in 2021 that would potentially ameliorate local climate – thermal benefits did not prove to be detectable at the reference meteorological station. <br>
- Remote sensing studies have shown that urban areas have unique environmental, climatic, land use/cover characteristics as a result of intense anthropogenic activities. Consequently, urban areas have developed distinct microclimate and elevated temperatures. Thermal remote sensing data has been widely used to study these characteristics. In this study, an attempt has been made to review the studies involving Landsat remote sensing dataset for investigating land surface temperature. Landsat is oldest finer resolution thermal dataset, which has been effectively used in mapping and analysis of land surface temperature, urban heat island and urban microclimate. Since 1978, it has been providing thermal data through Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) sensors.
- The report covers the work of Polish geographers on the Executive Committee of the International Geographical Union, from the beginning of its activity, that is from the year 1922. In the next part of the report presents the current share of Poles in the work of the Steering Committees of some Commissions of IGU.
- Reports from the European Commission (e.g. European Commission, 2018) show a relatively high level of motorisation in Poland (leaving the country ranked 6th among EU Member States). The number of cars per 1000 inhabitants is higher here than in any other of the formerly-communist countries acceding to the EU in or after 2004. Unfortunately, however, this situation inter alia reflects twisted statistics on motorisation that do not therefore offer a full or proper reflection of the real situation on the Polish car market. This article has devoted itself to the analysis of shortcomings characterising three groups of motorisation statistics relating to: 1. the cars known as “dead souls” (end-of-life vehicles) – whose numbers are overstated (by perhaps 6 million cars – or 26% of the entire total), given the retention on the register of those that have not been on the road for a long time, 2. “cars with a grille” – part of a Poland-specific phenomenon that results in understatement of numbers of cars and overstatement of numbers of goods vehicles (to the tune of perhaps 750,000), given people’s efforts to ensure that personal cars are approved for registration as commercial vehicles, 3. company cars, given overstatement (equal to perhaps 1.5 million) of numbers of vehicles in cities due to the presence of leasing companies and large enterprises operating company cars. The spatial distribution across the country of cars in the above–mentioned groups is very uneven and does much to influence spatial patterns relating to Poland’s motorisation rate (s). Overall, motorisation is much overestimated in large cities (e.g. Warsaw, Poznań, Katowice and Wrocław), while being underestimated in rural areas (especially in SE Poland). A crucial achievement of our analysis involves correction of official European statistics in this regard. The discrepancies characterising the statistics have the clear spatial distribution presented in Fig. 6. In its last section, this article then attempts to determine the consequences of such twisting of the motorisation statistics where both geographical research and decision-making are concerned.
- The research involved estimation of the global production of the Polish agriculture in 2010 (PLN 78.7 bln) and the annual average of European funds absorption (PLN 12.9 bln; calculated for the period of 2004–2010). The amounts mentioned above have been presented as indices showing their relation to: 1 ha of agricultural acreage; 1 person working in the agricultural sector; and 1 agricultural holding with agricultural business activity. These characteristics – provided in form of composite indexes (standardised averages of the selected diagnostic characteristics) – constituted the basis of the comparative analysis focused on evaluating the impact of European funds on the production capacity of Polish agriculture. The study of spatial arrangement accounted for external factors – both natural (agricultural production area quality index) and historical ones (former partition of Poland). The conducted analysis has evinced that European funds devoted to improving the characteristics of agricultural production bear positive results (correlation coefficient of 0.625). However, the phenomenon varies across regions – there is a virtual division line which separates northern Poland (where effects of European funds on the production are non-negligible) and southern Poland (where the funds affect the agricultural production capacity to a lesser degree – they have mostly social character).
