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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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Village renewal is one of the basic tools for supporting the socio-economic development of rural areas in Poland. This article is an attempt to compare, on the example of the Małopolskie Voivodeship, two different sources of funding projects directly supporting the renewal process – programmes co-financed by the European funds and the Działaj Lokalnie (Act Locally) Programme. In both cases, particular attention was paid to the role and activity of various local entities in the process of village renewal. The analysis of completed projects and their beneficiaries indicates complementarity of the two rural development support instruments. Village renewal projects financed from the European Union budget, implemented mainly by public sector entities, primarily include infrastructure investments. On the other hand, within the Act Locally Programme there are supported soft activities, targeted, among others at building and strengthening local identity, undertaken by entities representing the social sector. Combining both sources of financing and the efforts of various local actors may be a response to searching for comprehensive solutions leading to multidimensional village renewal. -
Virtual space
The Visegrad countries have become increasingly integrated into global production networks, mainly due to the increasing share of foreign value added in their exports. The automotive and electronics industries are the most integrated into global production network (GPN) with major role performed by European countries, particularly Germany. There are slight differences between the Visegrad countries, with Poland being much less dependent on exports and foreign capital, particularly due to its larger size. Overall, participation in GPN has brought benefits to the Visegrad nations, although limited attention has been paid to the costs such as dependence on foreign capital and low value control and capture.
Vitality, in relation to public space denotes presence of users in the space, their activities and social relations. This is a basic feature defining public space and at the same time determining its significance and quality. In the article, the issue of vitality was related to two types of spatial structures of suburban villages, analyzing their impact on the quality of public spaces. The study implemented a behavioral mapping method adapted to the conditions of rural areas. Observations of various types of activities (necessary, optional, social) were carried out during irregular inspections over a period of 5 years. The research was aimed at identifying differences in the social functioning of two different types of rural spaces, i.e. Spiczyn a communal, multifunctional village with a compact development and clearly visible center and Spiczyn Colony (Kolonia) with scattered or terraced housing typical for suburban housing estate. Inspections allowed to specify the type, intensity and diversity of activities, type of users, share of optional and social behaviors in the overall number of users as well as the visitability of the public space. The results clearly indicate the impact of spatial structure of rural development on the quality of social relations in the countryside. As key factors determining the vitality of space the authors indicate: distribution and presence of service facilities, compactness promoting walkability, complex spatial arrangement along with the presence and proper development of places promoting stopping, recreation and meetings.
Voronezh (Russia; region)
The Warmińsko-Mazurskie Voivodship stands out against other parts of the country in terms of its natural assets. Forest complexes, diverse land relief, abundant flora and fauna, but mainly numerous lakes make the region attractive to tourists. These results based on a survey study conducted among fishermen provide the basis for discussion concerning socioeconomic importance of fishing to the region and to the country. It is difficult to determine the effect of this form of exploitation of aquatic resources on the region’s development in recent years by means of presented results. One of the reasons is the difficulty in estimating the number of people who use the resources.
Water flow in the Polish Carpathians was exemplified by long-term (1988‑2017) analysis of two foothill catchments (of the Skawinka and Stobnica) and two catchments in the Beskidy Mountains (of the Soła and Osława). The work allowed for the determination of the duration of low flows and outflow deficits in relation to changes in thermal and precipitation conditions, as well as land use and land cover. In the selected catchments, the 30-year period brought a decrease in the area of arable land and an increase in the area of grassland and forest. In addition built-up areas increased by 495% between 1990 and 2018. A greater susceptibility to the occurrence of total drought was noted for the Beskidy Mountains catchments, in which the duration of low flows and outflow deficit was greater than in the foothill catchments. At the same time, the mountain catchments proved less susceptible to the emergence of deep drought, on account of their higher levels of forest cover and levels of soil permeability. In regional terms, the durations of low flows and outflow deficits were greater in the catchments located in the eastern part of the Carpathians (those of the Stobnica and Osława), in line with this area’s intensified features of a continental climate.
The water footprint (WF) of national consumption is an indicator that takes into account both the direct (domestic water use) and indirect (water required to produce the products consumed) water use of consumers within a country. This study quantifies the water footprint of national consumption in Poland on national and regional levels. It tracks the consumptive use of rainwater (green WF) and ground and surface water (blue WF), and water pollution (gray WF). The total WF of national consumption in Poland in the 2006-2011 period was 53.6 Gm3/yr (72% green, 10% blue, 18% gray). The average consumer in Poland had a WF of 1,400.5 m3/yr. Agricultural goods provided the largest contribution to the WF of the average consumer (1,241.4 m3/cap/yr), followed by industrial goods (145.6 m3/cap/yr), and finally domestic water use (13.5 m3/cap/yr). The assessment of the WF has formed a new interesting field for integrated geographical studies. It provides useful data for informing consumers about the environmental impacts of their lifestyle and consumption choices. In water policy, it can also create a basis for discussing water allocation and issues related to sustainable, equitable, and efficient water use.
Water-level fluctuations are among the primary factors determining the functioning of lakes. The volume to which lake basins are filled with water is of major importance to the courses of many processes and phenomena. A particular amount of water in a lake, and water-table stability, are also important from the point of view of human activity, as these elements help determine the quantity and accessibility of the water resources lakes have to offer, and therefore the possibilities for them to be used by different branches of the economy, e.g. industry, agriculture or tourism. The work detailed here is thus a presentation of trends as regards water-level fluctuations in 16 lakes in Poland, over the period 1956–2015. The study results, obtained for the first time in relation to such a long time scale and extending to around a dozen lakes, aim to point to the scale and direction of water-level fluctuations in times of the intensive transformation of the natural environment. They were obtained by reference to water-level observations made by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMiGW-PIB). Specifically, data referring to the (November-October) hydrological year were analysed for trends as regards mean annual water levels using the Mann-Kendall test. Results point to major variability in the courses noted for these levels over the analysed multiannual period. Nevertheless, three overall situations could be designated from within the group of cases analysed, i.e. increase, decrease or lack of a trend. The first group includes Lakes Sławskie, Jamno, Łebsko, Nidzkie, and Studzieniczne (where increases were statistically significant at p=0.05); the second, Lakes Ostrzyckie and Ełckie (decreases significant at p=0.05); and the last group all remaining lakes, i.e. Charzykowskie, Jeziorak and Rajgrodzkie, Biskupińskie, Drwęckie and Białe, Gopło, Roś, and Wigry. It was, however, noted that in many cases analysed periods of alternating increase and decrease in water level were to be observed. The causes of such fluctuations were complex, but inter alia reflected droughts of several years’ duration, periods featuring higher-than-average precipitation, and local conditions. In general, water-level fluctuations in lakes result from natural and anthropogenic factors determining the hydrological conditions in catchments. And in the context of the lakes considered here, the courses of water-level fluctuations were mostly a reflection of local, rather than wider climatic conditions – a fact i.a. illustrated by the lack of cohesive regional designations. The situation is different from that of, for example, the thermal or ice regimes of Polish lakes, in relation to which observed similarities in properties are seen to be determined mainly by climatic factors. Information of this kind may be of key importance to the (quantitative and qualitative) management of water resources in the context of the climate change being observed currently.
Water storage reservoir in the Kluczbork municipality in Ligota Zamecka is located on the Stobrawa river. In 1997 the river flooded surrounding towns and villages. It was decided to build a reservoir that during successive flood states would protect residents. The aim of this study is to analyze the possibility of using water reservoir in Kluczbork municipality for recreation and tourism purposes. The results of two surveys conducted among residents of Ligota Zamecka have been analyzed. The residents could express their opinion about the project. The first questionnaire was conducted at the time when local community was only aware of the project to build retention and recreation reservoir in Kluczbork. The second survey was conducted when the reservoir was completed and filled with water. The results indicate the change in the attitude of inhabitants towards the reservoir – the opinions were mostly positive. They think that it would be a good promotion for the Kluczbork municipality. Moreover, the physico-chemical properties of water from the reservoir were examined. The samples were collected in the autumn and spring below the inlet of Stobrawa river into the preliminary tank and at the inlet into the main tank.
The ways in which the valley and channel of a river are initiated are closely connected with paths water circulation within a slope system takes, with groundwater as an important morphogenetic factor in the development of those landforms. Being the factor that initiates processes of headward erosion, groundwater outflows have also been recognised since the 1980s as a factor forming relief elements (e.g. Laity, 1983; Laity and Malin, 1985; Howard and McLane, 1988; Baker, 1990; Dunne, 1990; Parker and Higgins, 1990; Nash, 1997; Lamb et al., 2006). The chief goal of the work detailed in this article has thus been to survey research conducted to date on seepage erosion and its role in the development of the headwater sections of river valleys. This has entailed the identification of areas in which seepage erosion has been studied, in the wider world and in Poland. The current state of knowledge on the contribution groundwater outflows make to the formation of a drainage system is also presented. Seepage erosion (Dunne, 1990; Lamb et al., 2006) is a process embracing mechanical and chemical action leading to the loosening, tearing off and carrying away of material from the zone of groundwater exfiltration. One result of groundwater sapping is the development of erosional undercuttings, which undermines the stability of slopes and causes their destruction via mass movement (Higgins, 1984; Laity and Malin, 1985; Baker et al., 1990). As a result of headward erosion, an area of groundwater outflow comes to be associated with a developing spring-head alcove, or an arcuate depression, often with steep slopes separated from the slopes of the initial depression by a distinct knickpoint. Together with slope and fluvial processes, seepage erosion contributes significantly to the development of valley forms in various morphoclimatic zones, including the temperate. The morphology of zones of groundwater outflows in Poland has been examined in the course of spring-hydrological and geomorphological studies. For example, the upper Parsęta basin features 88 river channels identified as having morphological features characteristic of an erosional effect of groundwater outflows (Mazurek, 2010). The spring-head alcoves predominating here are arcuate or paraboloid in shape and poorly branched (Photo 1; Mazurek, 2006, 2010; Mazurek and Paluszkiewicz, 2013). Reliefforming processes found to occur in these are: 1. seepage erosion, 2. mass movement, 3. wash, 4. geochemical processes, 5. biogenic processes, and 6. human impact (Mazurek, 2010, Plate 2, Fig. 1). The slopes of the alcoves develop by progressive headward retreat as a result of repeated episodes of sub-slope seepage erosion and gravity-induced mass movement. This sequence of processes keeps alcove slopes steep and leads to the formation of a concave section at the foot of the slope that passes into a flat erosional bottom. Water exfiltrating onto the alcove bottom under hydrostatic pressure washes out its sediments, thus deepening it uniformly, as is indicated by small differences in the bottom gradient. The share of seepage erosion in the formation of river valleys is still a topical research problem. There has been too little field research into relief-forming effects of groundwater outflows and their interaction with other morphogenetic processes that would corroborate the computer simulations and laboratory experiments conducted. There are also too few data about the intensity of the effects of seepage erosion and the rate of development of spring-head alcoves. Today great opportunities are opened up by the appearance of new research methods and techniques (like geotechnical studies, aerial and land-based laser scanning, and hydrogeological modelling), which allow for a quantitative assessment of headwater processes and the determination of their significance in the development of relief under conditions of advancing change in the climate and water cycle.
We present a training set, the database involving physical-chemical water parameters together with the subfossil Cladocera and diatoms community composition in the surface sediments of 64 postglacial lakes in NE Poland sampled along a wide trophic gradient (from oligo- to highly eutrophic). The most important water parameters measured in water were chlorophyll-a, electrical conductivity (EC) and oxygen concentration. In addition, total phosphorus (TP) and Secchi depth (SD) were determined for the surface water layer. The data collected will be used to calculate a transfer-function for quantitative reconstruction of trophic state in freshwater temperate lakes.
We studied the effects of landscape structure and agricultural land-use on ground beetles (Carabidae) in a temperate farmland mosaic and homogeneous landscape. The research was carried out at twelve research sites located in two regional units, i.e. (a) the northern part of mesoregion 842.72 West Lake District in the macroregion of the Lithuanian Lake District and (b) in the southern part of mesoregion 313.44 Damnicka Upland, within the macroregion of the Koszalin Coastland. By administrative division, these positions are respectively: in the gmina of Dubeninki, voivodeship of Warmian-Masury (Rogajny and Łoje), and in the gmina of Przerośl in Podlasie voivodeship (Rakówek) – hereinafter referred to collectively as the “Dubeninki area”; as well as in the gmina of Potęgowo in the Pomeranian Voivodship (villages of Wieliszewo, Malczkowo, Darżyno and Darżynko – hereinafter referred to as the “Potęgowo area”). Four of the research sites were located in fields of large area, and four in complexes of small fields subject to traditional cultivation. The faunistic data comes from 12 transects (6 for each regional unit and 3 for each field type – large-area fields and complexes of small fields) using standard trapping methods (Barber˙s traps). A set of landscape-structure indicators adapted to the local scale of the study was then applied. Results point to a relationship between the structure of the landscape, the expressed number of patches of plant communities, the diversity of vegetation in the surroundings and the presence of trees in the landscape, and species richness and diversity of ground beetles. Where agricultural areas nevertheless have a diversified landscape these are characterised by greater species richness of Carabidae than homogeneous areas. Furthermore, the shorter the distance to the nearest tree, the greater the species richness and diversity of Carabidae. However, soil type, as well as soil diversity, at a study site and its vicinity are not found to exert a direct impact on the species richness of Carabidae. Different soil types may be characterised by similar grain size, and thus similar humidity conditions and soil reaction, with these in turn determining other habitat conditions of importance to the studied taxon.
The Western Bieszczady mountains are an example of a region of Poland whose population suffered extremely heavily from the effects of wartime and post-war migrations linked to political repression. In 1944-1947 and later in 1951, from more than 100 villages in the region that had existed since the 15th and 16th centuries, approximately 90% of the total number of inhabitants were forcibly relocated – chiefly ethnic Ruthenians (Boykos). The scale in time and space, and the consequences for the landscape, of the natural and socioeconomic processes taking place there over the next 70 years have proved remarkable on even a European scale. The diversity of the former human activity, followed by a combination of abiotic and biotic renaturalisation processes and secondary human pressure, has led to the creation of unique spatial units. The main aim of this article is to address problems relating to the definition and classification of the contemporary landscape of the areas permanently abandoned by human populations in the Western Bieszczady, through the lens of selected conceptual perspectives of other researchers. Deliberations also covered the memory of the subject landscape in the material and information layers (structural and functional continuum, sustainability of spatial units, time in the sense of the historical evolution of landscapes).
When estimating the reach of the flood zones, a mathematical model that describes the flood wave propagation, as well as the digital elevation models can be used. In this study, a two step approach has been applied. In the first step, in order to find the most relevant flooding areas, a one dimensional hydraulic model HEC-RAS has been used, which assumes steady state flow conditions and a discharge of Qp 1% = 7210 m3/s and Q p 0.1%= 9960 m3/s. The segment of the Vistula Valley analysed is 47.05 km long. In the second step, a smaller area has been analysed using the 2D hydraulic model of shallow water flow which is based on the Roe scheme of finite volume method.
When we speak about the role of infrastructure in networks, traffic corridors or internet might come to our minds. Nevertheless, a school is also a crucial element within local and regional infrastructure, through which many networks are created and reproduced. Moreover, the principle of a school in a network of relationships could be perceived from several different points of view, such as: 1) a school as a part of the educational system, interactions between institutions; 2) a school network in an area unit, its character and connections to other characteristics of the region; 3) the relationships between a school and its local/regional community, including children, parents or representatives of the municipality. Although geography has a lot to say regarding these issues, we find few articles dealing with geography of education, both in Czechia and throughout the world. Therefore, the aim of our contribution is to discuss the position of school within the types of networks mentioned, as an institution, which teaches individuals to act while simultaneously acting in its environment as well. Emphasis is placed on elementary schools and examples of research topics are presented.
While 70 forms created by debris flows have been mapped for the Polish part of the Karkonosze Mountains, only 14 of these have a known time of origin and have been described in available literature. The oldest registered and described flows occurred in 1964, as followed by further events in 1994, 1997, 2001, 2002 and 2006. In 2011-2012 and 2014. Lichenometric measurements were carried out for the forms created by debris flows in the Karkonosze Mountains, i.e. the Great Snowy Cirque, the Black Cirque of Jagniątków, the Small Tarn Cirque, the Łomniczka Cirque and the White Jar nivation niche, in order to investigate levels of activity over the past 150 years. The lichenometric dating was based around lichens of the Rhizocarpon group. A major obstacle proved to be the limited amounts of lichens, or even their total absence in the case of the youngest forms created by debris flows. An exception was the Łomniczka Cirque. On the basis of the lichenometric dating it proved possible to identify three phases to the activity of Karkonosze debris flows. The first of these was characterised by a high intensity of the processes studied, and was associated with the Little Ice Age. As in the Tatra Mountains, this phase was seen to end in the 1920s, and was followed by a period of relative calm, interspersed with a small number of debris flows in the 1930s and 40s, and then in 1964. The next phase of increased activity as regards the transport of rock material within the forms created by flows (and including new debris flows), began in the 1980s, and has continued through to the present day. The debris flows in the Polish part of the Karkonosze Mountains are thus characterised by a course of activity similar to that noted in the Tatra Mountains.
While a gradual increase in the permeability of the boundaries present in Europe was long seen as a linear process irreversible in nature, that situation in fact started to change around 2015. The process that then ensued reflected crises associated with influxes of refugees, the geopolitical situation in Ukraine, and then, from 2020 onwards, the COVID-19 pandemic. These changes might further be set against the two facts that there are, on the one hand, numerous locations in which cross-border or transboundary functional connections have become so strong that mechanisms hitherto acting in support of their development simply fail to suffice; as well as, on the other hand, many near-border areas that remain entirely peripheral. Pandemic circumstances made plain the inadequate level of institutional support extended to the development and functioning of transboundary functional areas, including as regards, their labour markets. And so to the articles brought together in the present edition of ‘Europa XXI’, which seek to address the above issues and derived research questions. They do this by way of both general reflection and the concrete results of research carried out on the situations in border areas, as well as the conditioning, level and structure of border traffic. Taken together, the texts presented here incline the reader to conclude that EU support for cross-border or transboundary cooperation needs redefining even in the present, and all the more so as we arrive at further programming periods. The support in question ought to be coordinated more effectively with Cohesion Policy as a whole, while also taking the global geopolitical context into account. It should also address matters of cross-border or transboundary public services, resilience in the face of crisis, and the natural heritage present in or constituted by border zones.
While border areas are usually perceived as peripheral in nature, denoting only a limited level of economic development, it is clear that a border location might also be in a position to offer measurable benefit. In that context, work described here in relation to Poland has focused in on: (1) the delimitation of border areas; and (2) an identification and subdivision of units into those whose location by a state border brings either positive or negative economic consequences. The criterion applied most often in designating border areas is administrative (cf. Kałuski, 1990), with different hierarchical levels referred to (e.g. the NUTS 3 where pursuit of the EU policy on Territorial Cooperation is concerned; or LAU 2 where the need is to designate areas characterised by small-scale border traffic, with account then taken of the criterion of distance of a given administrative unit from the border). Alongside the administrative, a second main criterion relates simply to physical distance from a border, and usually gains application in denoting a zone of particularly intensive scrutiny by the Border Guard and other state services such as the Customs Administration (e.g. in the United States). Use of this criterion actually does much to hinder scientific research, given the lack of concordance with units of administration. Neither of the divisions referred to above embraces real functional linkages, while the real-life zone of impact of a border is likely to be indicated by just such linkages, of a socioeconomic nature, and specific in the sense that other parts of a country do not manifest them (Węcławowicz et al., 2006). Such linkages would seem to offer a basis to determine, first, if border areas actually exist at all, and, second, how they can be delimited in a detailed way, by reference to multiple criteria. It is certain that a key aspect is involved here, as the attempt is made to set the benefits of a border location against the “non-benefits”. But it is clear that attention also needs to be paid to the configuration of internal interactions, as aspects of a border location become all the more unfavourable the more peripherally a given unit is located. Ultimately, it is possible to indicate which border areas are actually problem areas, and to set these apart from other areas by a border whose geographical position ensures that a border represents no barrier to development and/or does not determine peripheral status. For the above reasons, the work presented here does indeed propose a delimitation based on real economic linkage (levels of export), as well as the degree to which regional centres are accessible from the given area. The first stage of the delimitation procedure thus takes in the designation of a border area formed from a belt of Polish communes (LAU 2) “two deep”. A second stage then sees elimination from this set of those units with a favourable location vis-à-vis the nearest regional centre (s), it being assumed that the proximity of these centres helps even out any potentially negative impact of the border; as well as with a high value for the statistic regarding the value of exports to the neighbouring country (the assumption then being that such units benefit from a border location, rather than suffering as a result of it). Units left behind following the application of this procedure were deemed to be border communes of problem status, potentially in need of support if they are to develop. In the event, such units are found to be located primarily along Poland’s borders with the Russian Federation, Lithuania, Belarus and Slovakia (as opposed to Germany, the Czech Republic and Ukraine). Unsurprisingly, it is communes by the Polish-German border that are seen to benefit most from their location. The authors set other divisions and classifications already in effect against the proposal for delimitation which is offered here, along with relevant recommendations for the development of regional policy.
While mountain regions face territorial disparities when set against lowlands, the EU’s post-2020 Cohesion Policy seeks to reduce such between regions by focusing on those that are most vulnerable. Along with regions that are otherwise remote, mountainous areas are mostly seen as in decline, and deprived of opportunities to achieve sustainable development. They face serious demographic issues connected closely with migration outflows, while they are characterised by low-quality educational services and a paucity of employment opportunities compared with circumstances in the lowlands. It against this background that the work detailed here was carried out to investigate inequalities between mountain and lowland areas of Greece. Specifically, the focus is on disparities in levels of education and unemployment, as well as population shifts. While the temporal frame comprises the period 2001-2011, the locality is the mountainous Municipal Unit of Ioannina, in the Region of Epirus. The findings reveal high level of inequality in all sectors of vital importance to one of the EU’s poorest regions, while the further aim of the paper id to reveal the main drivers underpinning disparities in the context of post-2020 policy.
While Poland has been perceived as a country that mainly receives migrants from the neighbouring Eastern Europe, it is also increasingly now representing an attractive place to work or study for migrants from other countries completely foreign from Poland in terms of their language and culture. However, as data on such international migrations are affected by numerous errors but can be supplemented by long-term statistics on border traffic, the work detailed here has sought: (a) to evaluate longterm trends to the structure of foreign traffic incoming across the country’s eastern border; (b) to identify causes of change in the composition of incoming cross-border traffic in terms of nationality, in relation to the geopolitical situation (pertaining both in Europe and the countries of origin); (c) to define the roles particular sections of Poland’s eastern border play in the migration-pressure context. The study was based on statistical data for the period 1994-2019 obtained from the Polish Border Guard. In an effort to encapsulate current migration tendencies, particular attention was paid to the citizens of Syria, Somalia, Nigeria, Iraq, Bangladesh and India. However, analysis also extended to the inflow of citizens of relatively closer migration origin, i.e. from countries like Moldova, Georgia, Armenia and Kazakhstan. In the period under investigation, Poland’s eastern border was found to have been subject to the impact of economic factors (influencing cross-border traffic), while also – over time – becoming ever-more susceptible to geopolitical events (e.g. the crisis in Ukraine and the migration crisis in Europe as a whole). Significant growth was to observed, not only (obviously) in numbers incoming from neighbouring countries, but also where other, non-European countries were concerned. Looked at long-term (over the last 30 years), Poland’s eastern border can be seen to have changed in nature several times, transcending local status in favour of global, but also moving in the opposite direction.
While significant increases in air temperature are being observed in the context of climate change, precipitation characteristics, indicators and indices seem to be changing in a more regionally-variable manner. High-mountain areas prove particularly subject to fluctuations and changes of climate, given that mountains serve as barriers to masses of air flowing over them, with the result that atmospheric precipitation totals are high in the context of the so-called orographic rainfall. Overall, the Chornohora represents the highest range anywhere in Ukraine’s Carpathian Mts, as there are six peaks over 2000 m a.s.l. capable of serving as a barrier running NW-SE. Nevertheless, the main ridge of the High Tatras (of the Slovakia-Poland borderland) is even higher and runs W-E. Each massif is some 30 km in length, while the two ranges are separated by a distance of almost 350 km. Main drainage divides run along the highest ridges here, with the Tatras separating the drainage basins of the Vistula and Danube, while the Chornohora represent a divide between the Prut and Tysa basins. The aim here has been to present characteristics of atmospheric precipitation in Tatra and Chornohora Mts. as these are seen to relate to atmospheric circulation. To this end, the dependent relationship between intensity of precipitation and atmospheric circulation was examined exhaustively, with changes in the latter considered from the point of view of intensity of precipitation in the massifs under study, and with trends for precipitation over the study period also looked for.The Niedźwiedź (2017) classification of types of atmospheric circulation was applied, with annual values calculated for circulation indicators P (a W-E inflow), S (a S-N inflow) and C (a cyclonic/anticyclonic inflow). Overall, the study drew on 1961‑2015 daily precipitation data from the north-eastern slope of Chornohora Mts. (as represented by Ukraine’s Pozhyzhevska weather station, PO, 1451 m a.s.l.), as well as the north slope of the Tatra Mts. (as represented by Poland’s Hala Gasienicowa weather station, HG, 1520 m a.s.l.).An air inflow from western directions was found to have prevailed over 28% of the days in the average year (Fig. 1). The most frequent types involved here were: Ka (12%), Bc (10%), Wc (10%) and Wa (8%). During the summer months (JJA), it is the Ka and Bc types that are even more frequent (present on approx. 15% of summer days). Types Wc and Wa in turn occur more frequently in winter (DJF) – respectively 13% and 12% of the time. In autumn, these types reach a level of occurrence around 10%.At 1712 mm, the average annual rainfall total for Tatra Mts is higher than that for the Chornohora (on 1446 mm). While the seasonal distribution of rainfall in spring and autumn looks almost the same in the two massifs, winter brings more precipitation in the Chornohora, while summer is a wetter season in the Tatras (Fig. 2). Largest amounts of precipitation nevertheless fall in the warm half-year, in the circumstances of N+NEa advection, cyclonic situations and under arctic, polar-marine or polar-marine transformed air masses (Figs. 3 and 4).The largest changes over time are to be observed for the zonal inflow index (P) and the cyclonic index (C). The P index points to increased numbers of days with a western circulation, while the C index confirms the domination of anticyclonic circulation (Fig. 5). The trend for annual rainfall totals is an upward one overall in both regions, but in neither does this achieve statistical significance (Fig. 6). Equally, there is a downward trend line for numbers of days featuring precipitation (RRdays) in the cases of both the Chornohora and Tatra ranges (equal to -7.3 days/10 years and -7.59 days/10 years respectively) (Fig. 7). On the other hand, the trend for numbers of days with higher rainfall, e.g. with RRdays>10mm is upward for the Chornohora (at +1.23 days/10 years), but downward for the Tatra Mts (at -0.6 days/10 years) (Fig. 8).
While the Colombian city of Medellín used to be infamous as the world’s most violent (1991), a more recent image is as the most innovative (2013). The case of Medellín is thus taken to epitomise possibilities for positive change, with the city being looked up to by others. The particular renown here is as one of the cradles of the so-called ‘social urbanism’, an approach to city-making that aims to resolve social issues by means of interventions in urban space, via infrastructure, public places, etc. However, while the successes of this approach have been acknowledged and vaunted internationally, certain less-successful effects have often tended to be silenced. This paper therefore focuses on the more-shadowy side to social urbanism, and on ways of proceeding that remain in place despite the transformations announced. The aim is thus to contribute to a fact-based discussion on the actual effectiveness of social urbanism in addressing social challenges.
Windthrows are ubiquitous in forest environments, and they lead to many ecologic, pedologic, and geomorphic consequences. The distribution of wind damage is not uniform, and may be controlled by many factors. This study examines the role of topography, canopy gaps, and forest edges in the distribution of windthrow damage within the Polish part of the Western Tatra Mountains (121.7 km2 ). A set of aerial photographs was used to map windthrows created in 4 different periods: before 2009, 2009-2012, 2012-2014, and 2014-2015. GIS mapping, image classification, and t-test were applied to analyze the data. Among all topographic characteristics, the highest diversification of windthrow distribution was observed in the case of aspect, which was probably connected with different wind directions in analyzed periods. Slope and elevation also controlled damage distribution, mainly by a decreased damage within the steepest slopes and the highest elevations. Canopy gaps did not influence damage distribution significantly. Forest edges, particularly those created by recent windthrow, were the most important factor influencing the distribution of wind damage.
The work attempts to identify aims and principles of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030), in regard to the issues of forest degradation and protection. The procedure followed here assumed two chief directions as it analysed forest degradation (including deforestation) and investigated the theoretical bases underpinning the restoration of forest ecosystems. Also incorporated was a review of relevant global environmental policies, along with remarks as to what has been achieved in this field in practical terms. The study thus highlights key dimensions to the degradation of natural ecosystems, where these concern the counteraction of further deterioration of forests, given the aspects relating to policy on global biodiversity, the protection of land and climate protection. While ecological aspects of forest restoration are naturally a main focus, the spirit of the UN’s Decade has been borne in mind, with the socio-economic and cultural merits of activities undertaken also incorporated into the examination. The work thus demonstrates the main goals, strategies and directions where the restoration of forest ecosystems is concerned, also pointing out exemplary large-scale projects and initiatives. The research has also taken in what may be seen as a leading direction within forest restoration, i.e. Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR). The study likewise accentuates the importance of tropical forests in any global pro-ecological agenda, while also emphasising the requirement for a complex approach to be taken to ecosystem restoration, and for natural ecosystems to gain protection and be reinforced as regards their resilience.
The work contains quantitative analysis of differentiation of altitudinal position and sinuosity of two lines determining the course of forest limit, i.e. timberline and treeline within Babia Góra Mt. (1725 m a.s.l.) homoclinal flysch ridge (the Western Carpathians). The course of the empiric timberline was delimited basing on aerial photographs with details from spatial data of Aerial Laser Scanning conducted in 2012. On the N slope, the course of timberline is exclusively conditioned by natural factors, whereas on the S slope this line was shifted downwards as a result of sheep and cattle grazing (however it has shown progression for the last 80 years). In the course of theoretical treeline conditioned by macrotopography and local climate, the mass-elevation effect is visible, and on the N slope, additionally, a sub-summit downward shift (the Diablak effect) occurs. The sequence of natural factors, according to their positive or negative influence on timberline and treeline courses was determined.
The work described here examined contrasts in biothermal conditions relating to location within the Polish Baltic coastal zone. For the purposes of this study it was assumed that tourists at different towns might relocate from west to east in the following ways: Świnoujście–Ustka (Ś–U), Świnoujście–Gdańsk (Ś–G), Świnoujście–Hel (Ś–H), Ustka–Gdańsk (U–G), Ustka–Hel (U–H), Gdańsk–Hel (G–H). The basic data used to make comparisons were then hourly values for meteorological elements obtained from the relevant stations in the warm (April-September) half-years of the 2001-2010 period. Also for the purposes of this study, the variability characterising bioclimatic conditions was calculated by means of the bioclimatic contrast index – BCI, which offers an assessment of the adaptation stress in the circumstances of a sudden change in weather conditions or change of location. Such changes in external conditions induce stress in an organism and entail the activation of adaptation processes. The BCI index combines various bioclimatic indices, i.e. UTCI, SW, Iclp and PST, with values then being represented by the classes of contrast described as very small, small, moderate, high, very high and extremely high. Values assumed by the index are positive where warmer bioclimatic conditions characterise the home location in comparison with the chosen destination, or else negative where colder conditions are present at the home location than at the destination. The contrast to be noted between the stations studied was mostly (in 83% of cases) found to be very small. On average, the contrasts termed small were present in 14.4% of comparisons, with moderate on 2.4%, and high occasionally only. Contrasts capable of being defined as very high and extremely high were not found between the stations under analysis during the study period. However, it was demonstrated that relocations from Świnoujście to: Ustka, Gdańsk or Hel, or else from Gdańsk to Hel would tend to involved colder weather conditions, while relocations from Ustka to Gdańsk or further to Hel – would prevalently be associated with warming weather conditions. Over the 24-hour period, the most marked bioclimatic contrasts between the aforementioned pairs of stations were those noted at 12 noon and 3 p.m. The most limited contrasts in turn characterised night-time – from 9 p.m. to 3 a.m. The marked predominance of very small bioclimatic contrasts and the complete lack of very high and extremely high classes in the findings can be attributed to the confi nement of the area under analysis to a single (coastal) region.
The work described here has concerned the assessment and analysis of summation curves and variability to half-outflow terms (TPOj ), as calculated for 14 river basins in central Poland. Given the regimes of particular rivers, their characteristic flows and geographical determinants of their outflows, the selected group of river basins proves very suitable for an investigation regarding the type and amount of hydrological information provided with analyzed characteristics. Specifically, the research was concerned with series of daily discharges from the second half of the 20th century. Relative mass diagram curves for daily mean outflows were generated for the particular basins, as was a regional summation curve. A relationship between the shapes and numbers of inflection points and river regime was identified, while it proved possible to represent the curve for the outflow in Central Poland using a degree-4 polynomial. This curve has one significant inflection point near the 170th day of the year (20 April), and the second, less visible in the 280th day of the year (6 August). The rivers studied can thus be assumed to have a nival regime, though transforming locally into a notfully-formed nivo-pluvial regime (in the case of upland rivers). In the middle of the hydrological year (near 1st May), about 60% of water resources are discharged from the Central Poland Basin, though there are some significant differences between basins. For the upland basins and the area of the Łódź Elevation region it is less than 60%, while for the Wielkopolska Lowland basins – much more than 60%. The half-outflow terms for particular basins and individual years were calculated using the method suggested in the work of A. Bartnik and P. Jokiel (2005). The TPOj distribution, mean values, multiannual variability and the spatial dimension were all investigated, and extreme values analyzed using quantiles. Both the spatial dimension to the TPOj and its multiannual variability show certain regularities. The multiannual means for the TPOśr in Central Poland are rather differentiated and are of lengths over one month. The earliest term (12th March) was recorded for the River Ołobok and the latest (17th April) for the Pilica. Some kind of TPOśr spatial dimension order is also to be observed, and is attributable to the fact that rivers draining the lowlands (and thus in the western and north-eastern parts of the area) have their TPOśr earlier than those flowing in the uplands of the eastern and south-eastern parts. Overall, the second half of the 20th century can be said to have displayed a seasonality to river outflow characterized by weather-influenced fluctuations, with no more constant multiannual trend identified. In the light of the results of the analyses carried out, the half-outflow term can serve as a simple measure by which climatic or anthropogenic changes in the seasonal structure of outflow can be indicated.
The work described here has sought to determine soil water content change and its relation with the change in the main agro-climate forming meteorological elements for the 1981-2010 period in comparison with the 1951-1980 one. Changes in the main meteorological elements, which lead to spoiled agrometeorological conditions in the second half of the 20th century over the Bulgaria, were identified. These trends are confirmed in the climatic scenarios for future changes through to 2050 and 2070.
The work described here has sought to identify the variable hydro-meteorological conditions (across hydrological years 2009–2014) determining cliff-erosion dynamics along the coast of Poland’s Wolin Island. Daily data from the tide-gauge station in Świnoujście allowed for the presentation of variability in sea level, with data obtained from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Also presented are annual, semi-annual and monthly characterisations of elements of the weather capable of exerting the greatest erosive impact on cliffs, i.e. precipitation and snow cover, as well as thermal and anemometric conditions. The daily meteorological data derived from the author’s own measurements, from the meteorological station in Biała Góra situated on the Wolin cliff top. The potential erosive hydro-meteorological conditions were set against annual measurements of cliff-top recession rates, the research into this involving geodetic RTK GPS measurements on 5 test sections representing different morpholithological conditions. The hydrological years 2009-2014 experienced very significant hydro-meteorological events potentially favouring the occurrence of erosion processes (mass movements and aeolian erosion). The occurrence of potentially erosive hydro-meteorological events is referenced against cliff-top recession rates. In particular, this study presents the geomorphological effects of two extreme hydro-meteorological occurrences. i.e. Hurricane Xavier of December 2013 (maximum sea level 612 cm) and a two-hour extreme (74mm) precipitation event occurring in August 2014 year. The specific nature of the cause-effect relationship between hydro-meteorological conditions and cliff erosion on the cliff coast of Wolin Island is also described, though these results are also capable of being applied to other cliff sections of the Southern Baltic coastal zone. The relationships between hydro-meteorological conditions and coastal erosion are not seen to be directly proportional, but are non-linear. It is not always the extreme storm surges and high levels of precipitation that generate extreme erosion along the shore. Rather, the dynamics of cliff-edge erosion are found to be determined by a number of other determinants obscuring the simple relation-ship between hydro-meteorological conditions and intensity of erosion. The most important factors influencing the dynamics of coastal erosion are morphological conditions, slope aspect vis-à-vis approaching waves, qualitative and quantitative conditions of sediment on beaches and in the shallows, the dynamics and frequency of extreme hydro-meteorological events in the preceding period, and human activity relating to hydrotechnical installations. Given the current upward trend for sea level and the increasing frequency of extreme hydro-meteorological events, the Southern Baltic coastal zone is expected to be subject to intensified cliff erosion in the near future. In this context, the results presented here might also gain wider application in studying other parts of the Baltic coastal zone with a morainic cliff coastline, especially along the stretch between Estonia and Germany.
The work described here sought to assess land use in flood hazard areas within selected gminas (local authority areas) of Łódź voivodship. The analysis in fact encompassed 21 of the gminas, located in the catchment areas of the Warta, Pilica and Bzura and officially characterised by “high” or “very high” flood risks. A flood hazard zone is considered to coincide with the area reached by high waters 1% of the time. The term “use” is understood by S. Liszewski (1997, p. 61) as „…using something, benefiting from something in a rational way which brings as great an advantage as possible”. Consequently, almost every human activity is reflected in the land and ”…performs a clearly defi ned and diverse function” (1978, p. 17). River valleys are separate natural systems characterised by specific forms of geological structure, relief, water relations and climate, as well as fauna and flora. These are precisely those features of the environment that condition and shape forms of human activity. The type of valley development has a strong impact on valuable natural features as well as on flood protection issues. In areas with no urbanisation, the degree of conversion of natural areas relates directly to the system of land-use types. The highest degree of conversion is associated with areas of cultivation, while a more limited degree char-acterises grassland, and the lowest degree if all forest areas. The mosaic of land uses of differing intensities is associated with growing fragmentation of the river and valley environment. In turn, from the point of view of flood protection the greatest emphasis is placed on analysis of the level of investment in the areas in question, and on identifying places that face a more distinct hazard, the correct identification obviously being of key importance in ensuring proper protection (Słoneczka et al., 2008). A surge in built-up areas in flood-hazard zones tends to be associated with flooding of increased extent and frequency (Konrad, 2003). In the area under study, the highest degree of horizontal intensity of development is that characterising the three towns of Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Kutno and Łowicz. In the gmina of Tomaszów Mazowiecki approximately 14% of the flood-hazard area has been developed, mainly with technical and production facilities, with the major potential losses in the event of a flood being likely along the Rivers Czarna and Piasecznica. In Kutno, the index for horizontal intensity of development for flood-hazard areas reaches 7.5%, an example that illustrates how smaller rivers offer a greater sense of security. People are more willing to build in the valleys of such rivers, with tragic consequences, given the way that the floods occurring in smaller valleys are more dynamic and harder to safeguard against. In Łowicz, the horizontal intensity index for 1% water is found to be 4.5%. The valley bottom of the Bzura is very wide here, especially in the western and eastern parts of the gmina where buildings are present (the central section of the river within the town’s administrative boundaries has an embankment). Smaller rivers, especially the Czarna, Piasecznica and Ochnia, give users a sense of security, as does a location below the Sulejowski and Jeziorsko Reservoirs. All this is leading to an intensification of land development in this area, and to an increase in potential adverse consequences in the event of flooding.
The work detailed here concerns an analysis of characteristic (i.e. Wq maximum, Sq – mean and Nq – minimum) specific runoff from selected river catchments in Poland as set against the recorded intensity of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) as quantified using Hurrell’s NAO index. Analysis was based around daily river discharges at water–gauges located along 40 rivers in numerous different regions of Poland (Fig. 2), and deemed to be representative of various kinds of hydrological regime. The data spanned the 1951-2010 period, though time series for particular river catchments were in fact in the 48- to 60-year range. The data in question were made subject to calculations of coefficients for the correlation between simultaneous series describing characteristic specific river runoffs and values of Hurrell’s NAO index. However, assessment also accounted for inertia of specific river runoff, by using cross-correlation coefficients, and most especially the relationship between studied specific river runoff and values for the NAO index recorded in the preceding year. The statistical significances of correlation and cross–correlation coefficient values were assessed using the Student t test ( = 0.05). The correlation between values for the Hurrell index and weighted average specific runoff from Poland was also analysed. A key research finding was that the largest number of statistically-significant correlation coefficients (19 and 14 respectively) were obtained when Hurrell’s NAO index was set against maximum or mean specific river runoffs (Fig. 4). In contrast, the NAO is shown to have a rather minor impact on minimum specific river runoff in Poland (with significance achieved for data from just 3 catchments). Asynchronicity to the relationship between the NAO and characteristic runoff in Poland was also observed, though it needs stressing that the NAO primarily influences specific river runoff in southern Poland, with only a more minor influence on runoff in the lowland and lakeland regions of central and northern Poland. The calculated cross–correlation method largely failed to reveal inertia of the analysed characteristic specific river runoff, with no statistically significant correlation being obtained between Hurrell index values and weighted average specific runoff from Poland. Equally, several-year periods with an asynchronous relationship between the NAO and weighted average specific runoff from Poland were to be noted between 1960 and 2010.
The work detailed in this article aimed to determining the multi-annual and spatial variability characterising start and end dates of growing seasons in Poland, as well as their durations. The study used data concerning monthly air temperature from the period 1971-2010, which were obtained from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute (IMGW-PIB). A growing season was defined as a period of mean daily air temperature 5°C. To determine the start and end dates of the above-mentioned period, use was made of the mathematical formulae proposed by R. Gumiński (1948). Over the analysed multiannual period, first days of growing seasons were seen to occur ever earlier, while last days have been occurring later and later. The most marked changes of start date were found to characterise Łeba (4.7 days/10 years) and Suwałki (4 days/10 years). However, at 5 of the 15 stations, the changes noted achieved statistical signifi cance. The most considerable postponements of the end of the growing season were in turn those found for Łeba (3.8 days/10 years) and Rzeszów (3.6 days/10 years). At as many as 8 of the 15 stations, the prolongations proved to be significant statistically. Average durations of growing seasons varied across the range from 200 days in Suwałki to 237 days in Wrocław. However, at most (11 out of 15) of the stations, there was a statistically significant increase in the duration of the growing season (of from 3.9 to 8.5 days). However, the change was seen to be more due to prolongation at the end of the growing season than to a changed start date.
The work detailed in this article sought to determine the nature of the transborder cooperation ongoing in Poland’s eastern borderland, focusing in particular on the transborder network. Research encompassed analysis of the scope of cooperation in terms of subject matter and type of beneficiary, as well as analysis of the transborder cooperation network using SNA. All beneficiaries and projects pursued under the Poland-Belars-Ukraine 2007-2013 Cross-Border Cooperation Programme within the framework of the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument were examined. Cooperation structures in the Polish-Ukrainian-Belarusian borderland area were then compared with those in the Polish-Czech and Polish-Slovak border areas. Results showed that, while the pursuit of common projects contributed to intensified connections in the Polish-Belarusian-Ukrainian borderland area, the transborder cooperation is much influenced by the strong formalisation of the EU’s external border, and by formal-legal regulations in the neighbouring countries. The cooperation network in the eastern borderland of Poland thus differs greatly from those in the south.
The work presented here aimed to compare daily amplitudes of air temperature in Poland and Bulgaria, by reference to data from 36 meteorological stations (i.e. 18 from each country) over the period 2000-2012. It proved possible to demonstrate that the average temperature amplitude at the stations in Poland is 2-3°C smaller than that noted for Bulgaria, with the spatial differentiation characterising such averages also being significantly more limited in Poland. Where the annual course for average amplitudes in air temperature in Poland are concerned, there are two maxima and two minima to be noted, as compared with one maximum and one minimum in Bulgaria. The highest values for average daily amplitude in air temperature to be noted in Poland are those typical for May, while highest values in Bulgaria fall in August. The differences between Poland and Bulgaria also manifest themselves in the markedly greater frequency of occurrence of large (>20°C) values for temperature amplitudes to be noted in Bulgaria.
The work reported here has examined the transformation of the Northern Ladoga region (a natural and historical region in the Russian-Finnish borderland) from ‘closed’ border area into a prospective tourist destination in the face of changes taking place in the 1990s. Three periods to the development of tourism in the region are identified, while the article goes on to explore general trends and features characterising the development of a tourist destination, with the focus on tourist infrastructure, the developing types of tourism and tourismoriented projects. Measures to further stimulate tourism as an economic activity of the region are suggested.
The world seems mainly to comprise nation states that are independent and based on one nation, if sometimes with certain minorities within it. Thus, at first glance the model seems to be of ‘a nation establishing its boundaries’. However, a ‘boundaries that made a nation’ model also in fact exists – in which nations were created after boundaries were laid down. The independent states in the Mediterranean region forming the main subject of study here are found to belong to both of the above models, with the result that they place overall between the European model of ‘nation states’ and the African and Middle Eastern model by which ‘boundaries make nations’.
The Wywierzysko Goryczkowe karst system has been the subject of numerous studies, and it was this extensive literature dating back to the 1960s, the 1980s and the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century that gave rise to a question regarding the role played in the development of the Wywierzysko Goryczkowe karst system by the last (Würm) Glaciation. The answer to this and other questions was sought via a reconstruction of glacial dynamic that, built on a previously agreed reconstruction of the geometry of the Sucha Woda glacier. The key here was an estimation of the amount of meltwater following the maximum extent of the glacier noted some 21–19 ka BP. The maximum coincided with the most marked Würm Glaciation cooling, this period usually being associated with deteriorating weather conditions, i.e. a decline in air temperature, lower rainfall (not exceeding 500 mm a–1 at the time) and consequently more limited ablation). During the period of maximum coverage to the likely speed of movement was of c. 14 ma–1. The movement at an altitude of 1600 m a.s.l. was thus of a little over 2 million m3a–1 of snow and ice. Taking into account the volume of snow and ice, rainfall, and the speed of the glacier, the volume of meltwater is deemed to have exceeded 105 k m3d–1. As the total volume of the glacier is an estimated 1.4 billion m3, this volume of meltwater seems relatively small. To better illustrate theissue, the author compared contemporary outflow with that during the glaciation. The outflow of water from the Sucha Woda Valley is currently 66.9 k m3d–1, though it needs to be noted that only 37% of rainwater leaves the basin at the outlet of the Tatra Mountains, the vast majority feeding the Wywierzysko Goryczkowe and Olczyskie karst system. The volume of the Wywierzysko Goryczkowe karst systemis 2.1 million m3 according to the Mangin method, making this the largest local aquifer in the Tatra Mountains. During the period of maximum glaciation prevailing climatic conditions did not facilitate the free flow of water in the glacier, which represented a natural barrier to the flow of meltwater, while a major role in the circulation of water was played by the varied relief of the Stawy Gąsienicowe Valley. In tension areas especially, deep crevices allow water to penetrate into the interior, and then to supply the ground. However, most meltwater would have flowed on the surface of the glacier. It would therefore appear that the reconstructed volume of meltwater might have had a limited role in shaping the environment in the Wywierzysko Goryczkowe karst system during the time of the valley-glaciation maximum. The author assumes that the subsequent period of glacier recession, and above all the unveiling of the sinkholes area at Hala Gąsienicowa, allowed for more free penetration of water into the karst system, probably during the early stage of permafrost formation.
The year 2015 was a turning point for the migration and asylum system in the EU and Greece. Almost 900,000 migrants and refugees crossed Turkey’s land and sea borders on their way to Europe. The so-called ‘migration and refugee crisis’ dominated the academic and political discourse and provoked different reactions from local communities, civil society and long-time resident migrants. Especially in rural areas, the newly arriving refugees triggered different reactions from the local population. At the same time, accommodating the refugees and facilitating their integration into rural localities created additional infrastructure needs. Drawing on the theoretical discussion on migrant infrastructures’ and ‘arrival infrastructures’, the main objective of this paper is to discuss the different manifestations of migrant infrastructures in rural communities, in Western Greece in particular. The paper draws on a recent empirical study conducted in the framework of a project that explored territorial inequalities and the links with different forms of mobility in both urban (Attiki Region) and rural areas of Greece (Western Greece Region). While the discussion on arrival infrastructures mainly relates to urban settings, in this paper we argue that the rural context informs and enriches the debate, allowing to be considered in terms of non-fixed assemblages of institutional (formal) and non-institutional (informal) arrangements that fulfil both tangible and less tangible needs and requirements. Forging better links between the migration infrastructures approach and the formulation of imaginaries and characteristics of wellbeing will enable a better understanding of refugee agency, and one more informed by social theory <br>
‘Zeitenwende’ as announced by German Chancellor Olaf Scholz in relation to Ukraine suggests the retrenchment of ‘territorialism’. I discuss this with a focus on Poland. Western Ukraine has after all been Eastern Poland until becoming part of the Ukrainian SSR in 1939. Enlarged with Crimea, the same SSR declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 at a time when Poland was aiming to join the EU and NATO. Now, Poland is a conduit of assistance, military or otherwise to Ukraine. In due course she may need to reconsider her aspiration, as good as fulfilled now, for being a consolidated nation-state. The alternative in 1919 was something like the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of old. That model may become relevant once more. If so, then this would be like my alternative – neo-medievalism – to a territorialism under which nation-states are the exclusive building blocks of the international order. Neo-medievalism stands for political action, including defence, no longer being the exclusive province of the territorial nation-state. If so, then thinking about the state as if it were the owner on behalf of the nation of its territory needs to adapt. <br>
The zonal index, version for Central Europe (called ‘for Poland’), was proposed by Lityński. He calculated the pressure difference between latitudes 40° and 65°N on the zone 0-35°E. This paper presents the characteristics of the zonal index based on Lityński’s concept and the NCEP/NCAR grid data. A statistically significant increase (1948-2016) occurs in mean values of the zonal index for winter and for the entire year, as well as in the standard deviation and 99 percentile of zonal index. The annual course of the zonal index is evident.
zubr (European bison)
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