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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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The aim of the study is to assess the use of biomass for energy purposes in Poland by 2020. The article presents the Polish achievements in the implementation of renewable energy sources (RES). The use of local biomass should aim at increasing the local and regional competitiveness based on endogenous capital – the biomass. Total production of electricity from biomass was presented. An important issue is the possibility of using agricultural biomass for energy purposes, both in the production of liquid biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel) as well as solid biomass, i.e. forest material and established plantations on agricultural land (willow, poplar, Miscantusa), as well as production of biogas in biogas plants. Particularly noteworthy is the use of all waste and side products from agriculture (manure, straw, waste wood from orchards). The use of biomass energy should aim to create a system of distributed energy, which would complement national energy system. Small power plants operating in the CHP system are expected to be based on modern, high-efficiency cogeneration technologies.
The aim of the study is to create a conceptual framework for the valuation of the endogenous influence of public goods in rural areas using the new approach: the economic surplus valuation method (ESV), which implements the concept of producer and consumer rent. A distinctive feature of the ESV, compared to other market-based valuation methods is the assumption that public goods exert an endogenous impact upon resources and their productivity, but do not act in the model as exogenous variables (as it is in the case of hedonic pricing methods; the HPM). The authors’ approach limits the issues related to the specification bias within the HPM. Moreover, this manner reduces the problems associated with model specification errors in the HPM. The authors argue that ignoring the endogenous impact of public goods on resources and their productivity can lead to distorted results.
The aim of the study is to evaluate the influence of agglomeration effects on corporate performance in Germany. The assessment carried out by investigating the effects of localization and urbanization. For this reason, the work was presented to the theoretical basis; it formulated the problem, methodology of the research and analyzed the influence of various factors on the number of employees in leading industries of Germany. We use the Panel data, a large-scale German establishment survey covering around 3477 companies of 9 industries located in 83 cities (14 lands). The study covers the period 2007 – 2014 years. The paper presents a linear model and two nonlinear models – the model with the addition of the square of companies` age and the model using the natural logarithm of the number of employees. The best model was chosen by using Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Schwarz (BIC), i.e. the linear model. The study found that localization effects have a positive impact on the number of employees, while the effects of urbanization – negative. In addition, it most strongly depends on the number of employees by region and industry. In the largest regions there is the largest population and respectively, the number of workers in it, so the agglomeration effects in the populous region is higher than in the other regions. The age of the company has a positive effect on the company’s number of employees: with an increase in the age of 1 year, the number of employees is increased by 21 people.
The aim of the study is to identify changes in the organizational and production-related behaviours of commercial agricultural holdings’ owners. Overcoming main developmental barriers is vital to building potentials of the agriculture and rural areas in the Opolskie Voivodeship. For the purpose of the study exogenous and endogenous factors have been considered, in particular: agricultural policy, multifaceted institutional environment, farmers’ readiness to invest, changes in technology of production, search for specialization niches. The source of information was a questionnaire-based research conducted among the owners of agricultural holdings that cover the area of more than 10 hectares of arable land, whose produce is designed for the market. Having extended the research timespan (1992, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2014 and 2018), it can be concluded that the development of the commercial agricultural holdings in the region has clearly displayed attributes of stability. In 1992, 19% of the respondents perceived their holdings as developing, while in 2014 the number rose to 84% and 77% in 2018. Securing stability of agricultural holdings’ growth is significant for integrated rural development. The holdings’ owners consider the following to be the main external barriers: instability of prices and the state’s faulty policy. On the other hand, respondents point to the following as the chief internal barriers: low profitability of production, shortage of means available for investment and lack of successors. The major conclusion that can be drawn from conducted research proves the need of advancing broader strategic thinking on the development of agriculture and rural areas, both at national and regional scale.
The aim of the study presented here was to identify distinct Polish regions from the point of view of thermal winter, and in line with two developed criteria, i.e. average monthly and daily values for air temperature. The research in question was based on data series for the November-April periods in the years 1960/61–2014/15 inclusive, as obtained from 36 weather stations of the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management (IMGW). Start and end dates of thermal winter, defined as the period with mean daily temperatures below 0°C, were identified by reference to mean monthly values for air temperature calculated with the commonly-used calculation by Gumiński. For the sake of simplicity, dates and durations of thermal winters calculated by reference to mean daily temperature values are referred to simply in terms of their being “the winter period”. The beginning of such a winter period is thus marked by the first (and the end by the last) occurrence of at least a three-day series of mean daily air temperature below 0°C. Such characterisations of thermal winters and winter periods for the different stations (relating to start and end dates, durations and durational coefficients of variability) were inputted into cluster analysis, with the result that three general regions of Poland featuring similar patterns for negative air temperature were identifi ed. In the identified western region, the period of negative air temperature is the shortest and is also characterised by the highest inter-annual variability, particularly when it comes to winter days in its north-western sub-region. By contrast, the longest thermal winter period, along with the lowest inter-annual variability is found to characterize the so-called eastern region. In comparison with the western, this region differs particularly significantly in terms of mean air temperature values, given that winter lasts almost twice as long there, and is recorded almost every year. The western region displays the highest inter-annual variability where features characteristic for the occurrence of negative temperature are concerned, while the eastern region shows the lowest variability. Over the analysed period, there was no significant linear trend noted for the start and end dates of both thermal winter and the winter period. However, it was possible to note a tendency for thermal winters in the central and eastern regions of Poland to shorten. Only in the eastern region was it possible to note a decrease in the frequency of occurrence of winter days. In the central region, the durations of thermal winter periods determined using mean monthly air temperatures are indeed the same as the actual numbers of days with 24-hour air temperatures below 0°C in an average multi-annual period. In contrast, in the western region the true length of the thermal winter is underrepresented by 7 days (i.e. shorter), while in in the eastern region it is overrepresented by 6 days (i.e. longer). However, over the analysed 55-year period, almost every region reported instances of thermal winters being overrepresented as well as underrepresented in terms of duration, with the deviation in many seasons being in the 20-40–day range. In the western region, durations of thermal winters were seen to be underrepresented twice as frequently, when comparisons with actual numbers of winter days were made, while in the eastern region there was overrepresentation. Mean monthly air temperature, as the criterion adopted most typically in identifying thermal winters in Poland, does offer a best reflection of the durations of winters in the central region. In contrast, in the cases of the western and eastern region identified, mean 24-hour air temperatures would seem better suited to determining thermal winters.
The aim of the study was to analyze changes in the command and control functions of cities in 2006 and 2016 based on the method of gravity centers. The analysis was performed both for individual sectors of the economy as well as for the European economy as a whole. The shift in the center of gravity of the studied command and control functions of cities in the direction of Central Eastern Europe is examined in the paper. The fairly recent development of CEE and European integration increasing to the east and south has triggered the relocation of many companies from west to east and has also increased the importance of local companies. It may therefore be argued that the importance of the command and control functions of cities in developing countries has also increased (Poland, Russia). There is also a related decline in the importance of the so-called blue banana region and cities in Great Britain and Germany. This is especially visible in terms of the number of corporate headquarters in the western part of the continent. However, the shift in capital is not that clear – and both German and British corporations still remain the leaders in Europe.
The aim of the study was to assess the changes of population and settlement pattern, which occurred in the Kłodzko region in the post-war period. Particular attention was paid to villages that have been severely depopulated or vanished – the research question was whether the processes that are taking place in such places today can be described as rural revival. The analysis was based on statistical data from pre- and post-war censuses, pre-war and contemporary cartographic materials and data on annual permits issued for single-family housing development. Fieldwork has also been carried out, including inventory and interviews. In the post-war period polarization of population-settlement processes took place. In the periphery there was depopulation and degradation of buildings, while in the center of the region and around the cities an increase in new buildings was observed, which intensified after 1989. Repair and modernization of old buildings have also become common since that time. In most of the vanished and heavily depopulated villages, some social and economic movements have taken place in recent years. The article presents typology of processes currently observed in these areas. This allows to conclude that in the spatial-landscape dimension one may ascertain revival of some villages in the context of appearing new buildings and residents or renovations of old farmsteads. However, the type and function of the new developments and their layout often do not refer to the old structure and function of the village, thus they do not represent the literal revival of the previous functional-spatial system. Some depopulated villages also have important cultural and social functions.
The aim of the study was to identify and examine main directions of soil patterns, typology, SOC (Soil Organic Carbon) and Nt (Total Nitrogen) content in the topsoil changes that have occurred in kettle holes as an effect of soil erosion and anthropogenic denudation. Varied in the type of land use, three closed basins located in young glacial landscape in north-western Poland were investigated. According to the type of land use, the total area of soils with untransformed or moderately transformed morphology is different. Significant modifications have been taking place not only in mineral soils, which are located on slopes, but especially in soils of the bottom of sedimentary basins. In fact, most of primary soil properties and morphology have been replaced by new characteristics. The most intensive modifications of soil morphology and soil chemical properties occurs within croplands. Total area of colluvial soils can be treated as indicator of soil erosion processes intensity.
The aim of the study was to identify the geography of companies offering Industry 4.0 technologies (digital entrepreneurs), and to determine the territorial potential to develop future clusters of these activities in Poland. The identification of spatial clusters was performed on the basis of a multistage procedure, using dispersed and big data sets, based on the prevailing classification codes of economic activities and location quotient. It was found that digital entrepreneurs of Industry 4.0 show a strong concentration in a small number of cities and counties, and first of all in the core cities of the largest Polish metropolises. Strong concentration is shown especially by software and engineering services, as well as companies distributing specialised machinery and equipment. The greatest prospects for development in non-metropolitan areas are displayed by suppliers of 4.0 technologies connected with production of machines and devices and dealing with their installation and integration. Heterogeneity of Industry 4.0 technologies enables individual cities and regions, on the basis of well-recognised own potential, explore different paths of local development connected with Industry 4.0 technologies.
The aim of the study was to present livelihood security of residents inhabiting Dołhobyczów commune located in the Lubelskie Voivodship. This is an example of a peripheral area experiencing a number of drastic changes in both social and economic spheres in the post-war period. In the municipality, development processes are taking place at slow rate due to peripheral location and consequences of ownership transformation in agriculture (liquidation of state-owned farms). The study implemented assumptions related to the concept of livelihood, which allowed to reveal the specificity of examined area and social issues their occurring.
The aim of the work described here has been to analyse contemporary changes along the shore along the central part of the Vistula Sandbar located on the Baltic’s south coast. There, breakwaters are being installed to protect the canal cut that has been under construction since 2020 (fig.1). Shoreline changes involving both dunes and beaches have been predicted to arise following construction of breakwaters, which will obviously influence the dynamics of the previously natural shore of the Sandbar. Factors exerting done in the 2003‑2020 period. The section of the Sandbar under discussion (the middle part, at km 18‑25, fig. 1, 2) has so far shown only limited accumulation trends. Plate 1 presents different relief of the foredunes caused by storm surges and aeolian processes. The wind regime for 2001‑2017 features the more marked presence of wind from the W and SW sector. Aeolian accumulation caused by such westerly winds is rebuilding the beach and dune in the investigated area (fig. 6‑8). The strongest winds are those from the NW that arise during the autumn-winter period. The orientation of the sandbar coast ensures that erosion in the course of storm surges is different. The middle part of the Vistula Sandbar is only eroded during the highest storm surges (fig. 3). Over the research period, it was possible to observe erosion of various types caused by storm surges recorded in Gdańsk. Since 2003, there have been several storm surges featuring a water level higher than 1.2 m AMSL. Each such surge ensures severe erosion of dunes (as in 2004, 20006, 2007, 2012, 2017 and 2019). Storm erosion is a major factor in dune development: the higher the surge, the higher the levels of water run up and coastal erosion (fig. 4). During the highest surges (featuring water of H>1.2 m AMSL, the run-up is of almost 4 m AMSL. The mean rate of retreat at the base of the foredune is 3‑4 m, while the maximum reaches 7‑8 m. In the periods between storms, the areas at the bases of dunes increases by 0.8 to 1.5 m/y. Reconstruction of the dunes took place up to 2‑3 years after a major storm surge. The sand building foredunes is fine and medium (average 0.20‑0.21 mm). There are fines sands along the whole Vistula Sandbar, while beach dune sand is coarser. The coarsest sand is the type that builds the beach ridge (0.3‑0.4 mm). This type of material comes from the cliffs of the Sambian Peninsula located in the NE part of the Gulf of Gdańsk. Plants scattered across the beach ensure aeolian accumulation on the upper beach. Beach height is often higher than the highest water run-up during storm surges, with this serving to safeguard dunes against erosion. Beach width is almost widest on the investigated part of Sandbar (other than at the mouth of the Vistula delta), exceeding 41 m on average (figs. 1C and 5). The foredune dynamics are not great (figs. 6 and 7). However, there are more major increases in years lacking storm erosion, with the height of foredunes exceeding 4‑5 m. Neighbouring sections of coast lack such foredunes, however – meaning that erosion is more marked there than along the Sandbar’s central stretch. The area under study is one of two accumulating sections of the Vistula (the second being in the Vistula Delta). Analyses show that breakwaters constructed will block sediment transport on both the shore and the beach. All aeolian sediment will accumulate on the western side of the Canal that is to be completed (at km 26‑25). There will be new dune growth and beach widening. Sand will not be transported eastwards (at km 23‑18 and further east to Krynica Morska). Dunes will not develop in this section, and that will ensure the development of erosive tendencies. The erosion of dunes will take place on the eastern side of breakwaters and may exceed 0.5 to 1.2 m/y (fig. 8). Annual rates of erosion will depend on the number of strong storm surges with sea level H > 1 m. Such surges occur more frequently than they did in the 20th century.
The aim of the work described here has been to analyse the spatial patterns of regional economic development in the EU 10 New Member States located in Central and Eastern Europe. Its first hypothesis suggests that regional convergence observed at macroregional level should lead to a decrease in spatial dependency at theNUTS3 level, i.e. to overall diffusion of development across particular countries. However, a second hypothesis claims that diffusion processes from national growth centres to their regional surroundings would be still quite limited and negligible. The latter hypothesis relates to a different pattern of diffusion in selected economic secto rs that should largely explain the overall regional convergence process. To verify these hypotheses, the spatial autocorrelation method based on the Global Moran’s I Statistic and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) has been applied for the period 1995-2009/2010, with special emphasis put on particular sub-periods reflecting different stages of the transformation process, EU membership and the recent economic crisis. Furthermore, the analysis covers values of GDP per capita both absolute and relativised (to the national averages), as well as structural differences that allow for the presentation of the diverse dimensions to regional economic growth.
The aim of the work described here has been to answer a question as to whether migration movements can counteract the depopulation of Polish cities. Against the background of the worsening demographic situation faced by Poland (with population decline and an ageing society) – as mainly due to negative natural population growth and a negative net migration rate – an assessment is made of the possible effects of immigration on the said depopulation of Polish cities. The term immigration as used in this paper covers selected elements of the inflow of population into cities, i.e. that involving foreigners, returnees and non-stationary students settling in cities after completing their education. Analysis of the relevant data indicates that these migrant streams can only improve the demographic situation of Polish cities slightly, due to the limited scale of the movements involved. The scale of immigration into Poland is indeed rather limited. According to official statistics, 234,000 foreigners were resident in Poland as of 2016, with the majority of these people residing in cities. The actual scale of immigration is greater, with the real number of Ukrainian immigrants (the largest group) for example estimated at 1 million. However, it should be noted that the latter do not take up permanent residence in Poland, but rather come on a rotation basis several times a year. In the longer term, other EU countries (those that waived visas for Ukrainians in 2017) can represent competition for Poland as a country of destination for our eastern neighbours. The United Kingdom is another potential source of population inflow back to Polish cities. After Brexit, Polish nationals who work there (about 1 million in number) may emerge as non-eligible for permanent residence in the UK. The potential remigration in this context is of an estimated 200,000 people. Those Polish cities that are academic centres can count on the permanent settlement of a certain number of students who reside in them temporarily, but declare that they will take up permanent residence having completed their studies. This may also be the case for foreign students, especially Ukrainians. However, considering that some resident students are planning to emigrate from their home cities, the difference between these two groups, though positive, is small.
The aim of the work described here has been to determine synoptic situations associated with intensive snowfalls in selected regions of Europe. Specifi cally, an analysis was carried out for three stations representing regions with different climatic conditions in winter. Synoptic conditions were characterized on the basis of atmospheric pressure at sea level, the height of the 500 hPa isobaric area and air temperature at the 850 hPa isobaric level. Typical features of synoptic situations leading to intensive snowfalls in Belgrade are negative SLP anomalies and a lowering height of the 500 hPa isobaric area over SouthernEurope, as indicating the presence of a low-pressure system. Heavy snowfalls in Suwałki, Poland, are in turn associated with the occurence of a low-pressure system centred on the south-eastern Baltic Sea. Finally, the occasional snowstorms characterising Ubachsberg in The Netherlands are associated with extensive low-pressure troughs that bring in humid and cold air masses from the north and north-west.
The aim of the work described here has been to determine the long-term impact of human activities on wetlands. Consideration has been given to such aspects as the development of the drainage network, peat extraction and restoration. The study selected two Nature Reserve wetlands, i.e. the Pobłockie Bog and Kurze Grzędy, both located in the Baltic Sea basin in northern Poland. Both areas were subject to a search for relevant literature and sources in the form of historical maps from the last century, as well as contemporary topographic and thematic maps. Supplementary fieldwork was also carried out (in 2013), as regards the verification of the existing hydrographic and hydraulic engineering network in the area under investigation. The greatest past impact on the analysed wetlands was exerted by a network of ditches and irrigation channels. This revision of the hydrographic network caused departures from the natural water cycle, as drainage became excessive in the face of the loss of the natural drainage system. The consequence was drying and rotting of bog surfaces, with the replacement of original plant species with those of differing requirements as regards hydrological regimes. Attempts to restore more natural water relations to the bogs have been made recently, with appropriate treatment raising the level of groundwater, in order to encourage improved functioning. A measurable effect of this is a reduced number of ditches and irrigation channels, for example from 13.3 to 1.48 km since 2000 in the case of Pobłockie Bog. Hydrographic change associated with drainage of peat deposits is considered the most important reason for changes in swamp habitats, and notably their vegetation. Some plant species have been replaced by others, with certain plant species requiring damp conditions (notably cross-leaved heath Erica tetralix) disappearing altogether with the lowering of the water table. Long-term drainage and the construction of new drainage ditches have led to the encroachment of bog woodland on the originally treeless bog. The effect is a loss of large bog areas, replaced by forest communities. The analysed bogs present clearly visible changes in the hydrographic network. Over the years the formerly waterlogged area has been transformed by human activity from a naturally treeless wetland to a desiccated region with only a small amount of water. The area was drained so that land for agriculture could be acquired, but the area was also used as a source of peat. With the passage of time, human overexploitation of the area ceased, and the approach taken to wetlands today is entirely different from that in place a few decades ago. The uniqueness of these kinds of wetlands has come to be appreciated, and an attempt has thus been made to restore a more natural appearance and function to the areas under study, among others. The first effects of the attempts to repair the environment in the area can now be seen in increasing soil moisture, a shallower water table, and an increased area with permanently visible standing water. Such a rapid pace of change in water conditions has been achieved, not only through human activity, but also by way of a natural factor that is the activity of beavers (Castor fiber).
The aim of the work described here was to assess the temporal variability and spatial differentiation characterising the outflow of a river, using integrated geoinformation methods and hydrological modelling. The study was conducted in the Parsęta drainage basin, whose internal structure is considered representative of young-glacial lowlands in the temperate climatic zone. The simulations of water balance were carried out using a hydrological and water quality model called the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), as integrated into a geographical information system. SWAT is a basin-scale, continuous-time model. It was designed to predict the impact of watershed management changes on outflows of water, sediment and chemical components. The spatial data analysis is based on concerns a digital elevation model, lithology, hydrography, soil, land cover and land use. The simulations included meteorological data for the period 1966-2010 from 4 meteorological stations of the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Selected from among available methods were: the Soil Conservation Service Curve Number method (SCS-CN) to estimate surface runoff, the Penman-Monteith method to estimate potential evapotranspiration, and the Muskingum river routing method for a channel network. Models required calibration, which was achieved using SWAT-CUP4 software. Within the SWAT-CUP4 framework, the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) calibration procedure was selected. Calibration and validation were performed on data collected at three water-gauge stations in Tychówko, Białogard and Bardy, for the years 1966-2010 (these measurement data were obtained from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management). The results were assessed by reference to such statistics as the R2 determination coefficient, Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE) and percentage bias coefficient (PBIAS). The results with an annual time step were characterised by high values for the statistical evaluation coefficients. The values for the percentage bias coefficient were in the 3-13% range for the calibration, and of 4-17% in the case of the validation period. Found to be most consistent with the observed data were modelling results obtained for the closing profile of the basin. A reduction in the area of catchment considered was associated with lower values being obtained for the statistical coefficients, in respect of the evaluation of the results. In comparing results in relation to the period of calibration and validation, only very small differences as regards assessment factors were to be found. Application of the SWAT model in the case of a lowland river flowing through a young-glacial landscape confirmed that model’s universal applicability to catchments characterised by widely different environmental conditions and river regimes.
The aim of the work described here was to determine the rate of frost weathering for selected types of rock, and the manner in which this proceeds. The authors attempts to answer questions regarding progress with the disintegration of a given type of rock over time; the size and shape of weathered grains; the role played by fissures in rock and rock texture; and further relevant properties like compressive and tensile strength, porosity and water absorption. The rock samples used in laboratory testing were collected in the catchment area of the Chochołowski Stream in the Western Tatra Mountains of Poland. The seven types of rock analysed were white and brown granite, organodetric limestone, fine-grained conglomerate, dolomite breccia, quartzite sandstone and amphibolite. Samples were subjected to simulated frost weathering via the impact of repeated thermal cycles across a temperature range of -5 to +10°C. The simulation was carried out at the Low Temperatures Laboratory of the Institute of Geography and Spatial Management of Kraków’s Jagiellonian University, using a CI/1400/LT/2D cooling device. As testing was in progress, changes in the states of samples were determined through the measurement of dry and saturated mass and water absorption, as well as the speed at which an ultrasonic wave passed through. By reference to results for these measures, it was possible to calculate the frost weathering index after Matsuoke, i.e.:Rf= (Vp0-Vpk)/(Vp0*k) [cykle -1],where Vp0 is wave speed at cycle 0 (in km/s), Vpk is wave speed at cycle k (km/s) and k is the number of cycles. Rock dissolution tests and measurements of the products of weathering were also carried out. Values obtained for the index were used to rank the rocks tested for their resistance to frost weathering, as was the percentage of material in the initial mass that became subject to rock weathering. The least-resistant rock proved to be dolomite breccia, and the most-resistant amphibolites and quartzite sandstones. The rankings of other rocks varied in line with the indicative parameter referred to. The testing of physical properties suggested several reasons for high resistance to frost weathering among the analysed types of rock from the Western Tatras, i.e. the limited (<5%) open porosity noted for all types, limited water absorption, high compressive and tensile strength, compactness and homogeneity, low densities of fissures in samples in their initial state, almost complete filling of pores with matrix (e.g. in sandstone and conglomerate), re-filling of cracks (e.g. in limestone), and a significant component of resistant quartz. No effect of rock texture on resistance to frost weathering could be observed, but the presence of carbon matrix and carbonate rock fragments is important. The latter dissolve steadily, creating more favourable conditions for physical weathering (e.g. of amphibolites and conglomerates). The occurrence of mineral veins within rocks determines disintegration routes (e.g. in conglomerates). Given that rocks were subjected to an average of 850 repeated thermal cycles in the laboratory, the simulation achieved was of approx. 50 years of frost weathering under natural conditions in the study area. Experiments of this kind thus offer insight into processes running very slowly under natural conditions.
The aim of the work detailed here has been to achieve a methodological goal relating to methods, which focuses on the application of the Voronoi diagram in studying spatial aspects of the accessibility of retail stores. The Voronoi diagram is a partitioning of a plane into regions (cells) based on distances to points (seeds) in a specific subset of the plane. Each point located within a given cell of the diagram lies closer to the seed located in this cell than to any other seeds in the network. In the geographical literature, these are also often referred to as Thiessen polygons. The objective set was accomplished by analysing the distribution and accessibility of discount stores of the Biedronka retail chain in the Polish city of Poznań. As of 30 June 2015, there were 61 Biedronka discount stores there, making this chain the city’s largest. The Voronoi diagram was used as a spatial frame of reference facilitating analysis of the distribution of these discount stores across the city. However, in-depth statistical study was conducted using indexing methods that estimate the level of accessibility, as well as indicators of spatial autocorrelation. This allowed for the identification of spatial patterns to the distribution of attributes examined. Taking into account two basic dimensions to the accessibility of services, i.e. proximity (a relationship between the distributions of supply and demand) and availability (a relationship between the volume and type of services offered and the volume and type of consumer needs), variables established for each cell of the diagram were: (1) average weighted distance from the place of residence to the nearest discount store and (2) the quotient of population size and store size (weight). These indicators provided for the determination of a synthetic index of accessibility, as the average of the values of the variables under study, which had previously undergone a standardisation procedure. The synthetic indicator showing the level of accessibility of discount stores in particular cells of the diagram was used to measure spatial autocorrelation. Analysis allowed for the identification of spatial regimes which made it easier to evaluate the distribution of discount stores and indicate new potential locations on the basis thereof. The results obtained showed that, notwithstanding the presence of a considerable number of Biedronka discount stores, mainly in the most densely-populated parts of the city, the accessibility of these discount stores across Poznań was diverse. The most favourable pattern for the spatial distribution of Biedronka discount stores as set against population distribution was identified in the central area of Poznań. In turn, a spatial regime characterised by a low level of accessibility was found to extend over large areas in the eastern part of the city. The research showed that application of the Voronoi diagram facilitates analysis of the distribution and accessibility of retail stores. The transformation of a set of points into a diagram with cells of a polygon type permits the identification of spatial relations and regularities used in estimating accessibility. It would be impossible to achieve this were point-type methods to be applied. The research discussed in this paper represents one of the few studies in Polish geographical or economic literature in which the spatial variability of social and economic phenomena is analysed to generate a Voronoi diagram. This situation stands in marked contrast to the vast body of foreign literature on this topic. This paper therefore helps bridge a substantial research gap in its field.
The aim of the work detailed here has been to identify the most important premises upon which cross-border cooperation can be established, the conditions for its further continuation or lack of continuation; and the key barriers to and benefits from the cooperation in question. Also examined was the intensity of cooperation in the periods before, during and after the implementation of individual cross-border cooperation projects – the aim being to assess the extent to which joint projects generate mutual relations of greater intensity. Analysis drew on a questionnaire survey run among all organisations involved in the implementation of Poland’s EU-funded cross-border cooperation projects in the 2007–2020 period.
The aim of the work detailed here was to assess the suitability of the conceptual Santa Barbara Unit Hydrograph model for simulating a fl ow hydrograph in urbanised catchments exemplifi ed by that of the Służewiec Stream sub-catchment (A = 14.7 km2) in Warsaw, Poland. The area of the sub-catchment was characterised by a 40% share of impermeable surfaces, a large portion of which are equipped witha stormwater drainage system.The article presents the calculation procedure applied in a computer program developed by the author, which can be used to simulate flows on the basis of the SBUH model. The scope of the work included determination of parameters of the model (tc, Kr), using the iterative method for 13 selected rainfall-runoff events measured in the catchment during the 2006-2008 period. As parameters of the model were determined, no differences between measured and simulated maximal flows were noted, while parameters calculated for the individual analyzed rainfall-runoff events were found to vary markedly. The data obtained were used to devise a formula providing for calculation of the retention coeffi cient for the reservoir (Kr), as well as the time of concentration (tc) based on the coefficient, and calculated in relation to the maximum intensity of effective rainfall. Values for the time of concentration calculated using the formula ranged from 0.417 to 1.291 h, with a mean value of 0.707 h. Mean values for concentrations determined using the iterative method were found to be the same as those obtained through application of the formula described above.The times of concentration calculated using the formula were applied in simulating maximum flows using the SBUH model, with values found to range between 5.609 and 24.385 m3 s–1. The average value for the maximum flow of 10.343 m3 s–1 did not differ much from the average value of measured fl ows (9.847 m3 s–1).Maximum flows calculated using the model were compared with those measured in the fi eld, in this way making possible an assessment of the calculation procedure and the SBUH model. Relative error values established on the basis of these flows ranged from–28.3 to 87.6% (8.9% on average). Relative errors of flow simulations for the 9 eventsdid not exceed 15%. The results obtained confirm the suitability of the SBUH model forsimulating flow hydrographs in the urbanized Służewiecki Stream sub-catchment.
The aim of the work detailed in this article has been to indicate demographic and social categories to the greatest extent segregated in the three selected metropolitan areas of Warsaw, Berlin and Paris, by applying multidimensional analysis; as well as to answer a question as to whether these categories are similar or different, given the different circumstances underpinning the development of the areas under study. The metropolitan areas were selected from Central Europe (Warsaw), Western Europe (Paris), and from the area located in the borderland between these regions (Berlin). In the case of each area, typical categories were selected for analysis, and developed on the basis of accepted segregation indices (the dissimilarity index D, isolation index xPx, delta index DEL, absolute centralisation index ACE, spatial proximity index SP and modified location quotient LQp). The multidimensional and multifaceted analysis allowed the most segregated groups at municipality and district levels to be distinguished, and presented in the context of previous research.
The aim of the work detailed in this article was to describe instances of tornadoes being reported in Europe and in Poland in the years 1998-2013. According to the relevant ESSWD reports (as confirmed and fully verified), 1772 tornadoes occurred in Europe, while 102 were reported for Poland. The largest number of reports concerned Germany, while numerous cases were also observed for the south-eastern part of the British Isles. These results are consistent with previous studies. Antonescu (2016) reports that most tornado reports in European relate to the continent’s northern and central parts. In Poland, it is possible to distinguish a characteristic belt of land along which tornadoes arise most commonly. This runs north-south from the western part of Podkarpacie, through the Silesian-Cracow Upland, the Małopolska Upland and the central part of the Central Polish Lowland, to the eastern part of the South Baltic Lake District. Lorenc (2012) takes a different position over this matter, stating that tornadoes in Poland occur most frequently from the Opole area through the Małopolska region, Central Poland, The Kutno Upland and the region extending from Mazowsze through to the Suwalki region. In the analysed period, tornado reports in Europe and Poland arose most frequently in the summer months (from May through to August). This is in line with the conclusions of Taszarek and Brooks (2015). In turn, Przybylak (2007) states that the period with most tornadoes starts in June and lasts through until August. In Europe, tornadoes are seen to form most often in the afternoon, as is the case in the USA. This common trait stems from the fact that convection only starts developing in the afternoon hours, when the ground is warm enough. This warms the near-ground layer of air and upward movements are initiated. There are exceptions to this rule – morning tornadoes, or even ones occurring at night (Przybylak, 2007; Lorenc, 2012). The average number of tornado reports in Europe amounts to 118 per year, a result in line with the assumptions of Wegener from the early 20th century. However, the present figure is well below the average of some 169 per year given by Dotzek (2003). Where force is concerned, it is weak and moderate tornadoes that dominate in Europe and in Poland, i.e. those of strengths F0, F1 and F2 (on the Fujita scale). A similar situation applies to the Torro scale, with the tornadoes observed most frequently being at the beginning of the scale, i.e. T0, T1 and T2. Poland and Europe experience tornadoes of strength T3 (in 11% of cases in Europe as whole, and 10% where Poland is concerned). In Europe there is a prevalence of tornadoes of path width not exceeding 100m, while the situates observed most frequently are ones in which tornadoes make their landfall and then trek south-west or west (in Poland mostly the south-west direction). Lowlands represent the form of topography most favourable to the occurrence of tornadoes.
The aim of this article is to analyze various methods and approaches to peripherality, and to introduce proposals for delimitation of peripheral areas in Visegrad countries. First, the content of approaches to the identification of peripherality is assessed, followed by emphasis on the role of spatial scale in the delimitation of peripheral areas. Then, the strict and broad understanding of peripherality is described considering the role of locality in its conceptualization. The quantitative approach to the delimitation of peripheries in the Visegrad countries presented in the following part of the article is in line with the precise understanding, as it is assumed to be more sufficient for the research of economic development in peripheral areas. In the final part of the article, examples of delimitation of peripheries in whole V4 area are introduced based on distance-based measures, equidistant-based measures, and on the approach employing the potential index. This allowed for revealing and validating some regularities in the spatial distribution of peripheral areas but also revealed the role of subjective assumptions entering the delimitations.
The aim of this article is to assess the degree of consistency between municipal development strategies concerning the Opolskie Voivodship with the regional strategy. The author analyzed the character and the scope of recognition regarding guidelines resulting from the strategic document elaborated at the regional level in local strategies. It is assumed that pursuing a policy based on coherent and mutually linked strategic documents strengthens developmental effects. The above-mentioned analysis illustrated limited consistency of local strategic documents with the regional strategy. The overview of selected strategic documents at the local level in the context of substantive reference to the regional strategic objectives shows that although this type of convergence occurs, it does not have the direct and broad character. Therefore, there is a need to resolve the dilemma as to the legitimacy (or lack thereof) of establishing an integrated regional policy from the viewpoint of relations concerning strategic documents formed at local self-government level with the documents of senior level. Assuming the existence of significant benefits resulting from a coherent development policy, it would be essential to elaborate the system on a regional level, which would incorporate the principles of this policy. Its aim should be to strengthen developmental effects through clear identification of key directions and concentration of public resources on defined and crucial development goals, taking into account local needs and challenges of the region’s development.
The aim of this article is to assess the impact of the Common Agricultural Policy instruments on individual farms in the Opolskie Voivodship. The research was based on a survey conducted among farmers. The objective was to determine the socio-economic transformation, which in the opinion of farmers occurred in rural areas of the Opolskie Voivodship after Poland’s accession to the European Union. The survey embraced 383 individual farmstead managers with farm size ranging from 2 to 30 ha. The results show i.a. the impact of EU regulations on farmers’ situation, but also their attitude towards them. Farmers appreciate the EU support, however they are mostly focused on direct payments and the related increase in income. They rarely take advantage from other forms of support, for example training and consulting. Moreover, farm owners not often apply for modernization funds for farmsteads, especially if case of small sized farms.
The aim of this article is to examine the development of transport infrastructure (modernisation of railway tracks and development of the motorway and expressway network) and its possible effects on regional development in Slovakia. Accessible transport infrastructure (mainly the motorway network) has influenced many decisions concerning the location of industrial investments. The impact of transport infrastructure on the reduction of regional disparities in Slovakia is limited mainly due to the concentration of transport infrastructure investment in the more developed regions of Slovakia. Poorer regions in eastern Slovakia and the southern part of Central Slovakia are still affected by the unfavourable level of accessibility to the transport infrastructure that creates important conditions affecting their development.
The aim of this article is to generate a debate on the definition and application of the territorial approach of future EU Cohesion Policy. Territorial cohesion, its instruments and tools have formed a specific ‘paradigm’, ‘disciplinary matrix’ and ‘vocabulary’. However, a peculiar dichotomy resonates: the EU’s global economic competitiveness objective is (usually) confronted by its territorial cohesion objectives. Permanent failure is generated and anomalies of the territorial cohesion paradigm are on the rise. Are we at the threshold of a new scientific revolution inside the EU and within its territorial cohesion matrix?
The aim of this article is to identify and describe ways of acquiring and transferring knowledge in the agricultural environment, as well as socio-cultural determinants of this process. Based on the research conducted, the author distinguishes and defines two levels of knowledge transmission among farmers. Particularly important in these considerations is the farmer's attribution to his “place”, defined as a specific ingrown to the ground and the consequent knowledge that arises from human co-operation with that “place” which is the act of long-term socialization and the experience of the environment. Knowledge transfer is present in everyday activities, observations of others' work, exchange of ideas and experiences with other members of a given local community. Knowledge transfer also occurs as a result of the relationship between a “place” of farmer's life and work, which is manifested as a home and farm, and their surroundings. These relationships are equally functional and social in character, and they result in the development of qualitatively diverse living environment dependent on individual biographies.
The aim of this article is to identify possible problem-subject interfaces that encapsulate the legal perspective in the discipline of socio-economic geography and spatial management. With a view to the article’s objective being achieved, an indication of the general relations pertaining between the geographical sciences and the legal sciences is given, prior to an identification and presentation of key theoretical currents making it easier to clarify the role of the legal dimension in socio-economic geography and the spatial economy. A particular emphasis is here placed on the institutional approach and legal geography. There is then an identification of the most relevant topics in which there is a relationship between the legal dimension and socio-economic geography and the spatial economy. In practice, the two groups of issues identified were those in which the legal dimension is already recognised (albeit with the direction needing to be developed), or else those in which the legal dimension either goes unrecognised, or is only recognised marginally. Within each group, key issues are pointed out, and the most thematically relevant areas of law assigned to them. An attempt has also been made to identify key directions for future research and scholarly discussion. The article also serves as an invitation to further reflection and discussion. As shown above, both the institutional framing and that relating to the ‘branch’ that is the geography of law (legal geography) may be reflected adequately in foreseeable research fields, as well as problems to be identified and clarified. Even though the role of other branches of law is not neglected, it is necessary to state that the legal dimension relating to administrative law should be specially analysed within the framework of socio-economic geography and the spatial economy. Significantly, the internal branch structure of administrative law seems to coincide to a large extent with the ‘branch’ division of socio-economic geography and the spatial economy, even if this would of course not preclude more comprehensive or even holistic approaches in the future. The issues as presented lead us to a conclusion that the links between socio-economic geography and the spatial economy and the legal sciences are strong, even if this does not gain adequate reflection in research, or in theoretical and methodological progress. The article thus also serves as an invitation to further reflection and discussion. To that end, key conceptual and theoretical-methodological foundations are identified by the author, with a view to the discussion in question being guided. As has been demonstrated, both the institutional approach and that relating to the ‘sectoral’ geography of law (legal geography) can gain adequate reflection in foreseeable research fields, along with problems to be identified and clarified. A further line of work should be to detail better the relationship between the indicated theoretical frameworks and the issues identified, with these also being translated into proposals for concrete research. <br>
The aim of this article is to identify the potential of local communities in tourism development in the countryside. The exemplification of the discussion is the creation of rural tourism development in the village called Żulawki in Stegna commune. The village has landscape and natural values and a convenient spatial location. However, the authors wish to draw particular attention to the process of self-activation observed among the influx community for sustainable development of the village. It is possible owing to the emerging features of the potential of this community: mutual integration, commitment, problem solving orientation and access to resources. The subjectivity of the characterised community manifested itself in the ability to adapt and identify with the new place of residence and its problems, drive to articulate one's own vision of rural development, and activation of the environment for the implementation of established plans. The text is based on the results of a study conducted in 2015 by means of participatory observation techniques and free-form interviews with local activists.
The aim of this article is to present results of long-term empirical research on the changing behavior of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Poland in the context of spatial exclusion and spatial ‘justice’. Between 2007 and 2015, the authors conducted cyclical research on the financial behavior of SMEs in Poland on large samples. The scope of research on traditional and virtual space covered mainly: the criteria for selecting a bank for current service and the use of various banking services in particular distribution channels. In the researched period, the percentage of indications to convenient location as the most important factor for selecting a bank dropped from 29% to 16%. In the entire period under research, the highest percentage of indications to convenient location as the most important factor for selecting a bank was recorded in the micro enterprises sector. The percentage of entrepreneurs’ indications of fees and commissions as the most important factor in choosing a bank increase from 28% to 36%. Price parameters became the most important factor of bank selection in the SME sector. Virtual space was used primarily to distribute less complex banking services (checking the account balance and viewing the history of operations on the account, as well as to make transfers). In the case of more complex products, such as deposits or loans, traditional banking branches were preferred. In contrast to the results of the American research (Degryse & Ongena, 2002), in Poland there was no impact of the distance between the company and the bank branch on the loan utilization rates and the loan refusal rates. The research has shown that the virtual space equalizes the opportunities, facilitates business operations, contributes to a drop in prices and improvement in quality of the offered products and services, and renders the access to products and services fairer.
The aim of this article is to present the dependence between the suburban development of housing estates and the transportation system. Relationships between the city and its surroundings depend on the road network and daily traffic. That is why in most cases cities ‘spread’ in a linear form – forming an ‘urban sprawl’ with a low density of development and long distances between housing and retail services. According to analyses, cities in Poland affect their outskirts in an ‘urban sprawl’ manner. The development of suburban housing dependent on communications leads to spatial conflicts. This article shows both the interdependence and consequences of this situation. The main methods used were statistical and spatial analyses and a case study.
The aim of this article is to present the role played by the society in the decision-making process concerning development of rural areas carried out by local governments. Applying the knowledge on inhabited environment resulting from the experience of the participants in a given area, local authorities can shape the area more responsibly and accurately. The article indentified fundaments of this knowledge and its forms of transfer. It has been emphasised that knowledge can also become a basis for cooperation between public and private sectors. The value of rural inhabitants' active participation in the rural revival and the necessity of including this social group in the process of decision-making have been considered as well. Moreover, the article discusses forms of communication between inhabitants and local government due to the fact that the discussing skill is always an additional value in the context of implementing the process of rural revival.
The aim of this article is to present the significance of higher education for changes in the Polish countryside. These transformation are – directly or indirectly – related to changes assigned to the value of education, as well as to structural changes in the entire system of higher education in Poland. Popularization and greater accessibility to higher education has undoubtedly affected rural youth and rural areas themselves. As a consequence, the areas that until recently had been marginalised were given an opportunity to 'catch up' in terms of educational and civilization progress. It was all possible certainly not only due to institutional changes in education system but also as a result of changes in the mentality of rural inhabitants, opening to new cultural trends and values – and last but not least – substantial aid from the European Union targeted at rural areas. The countryside has undoubtedly used this opportunity. Owing to a student-oriented broad opening of higher education institutions, youth has been given a chance to acquire their dream qualifications and higher education. The risk of unemployment has also been minimised. It is the young people of rural areas that became the most important beneficiaries as they were given an opportunity to develop, fulfil their ambitions and improve their qualifications. Although young people of rural areas still regard education as a means of social advancement, such dissemination brought them education in an unprecedented scale, while rural areas were given an opportunity to rebuild their elites. Among the negative consequences of these processes are more intense bonds with the town (through employment or residence), which are replacing the existing bonds with the countryside. The situation described may in fact be of dysfunctional nature for rural areas. It is true that an increasing number of people with higher education can be found in rural areas, yet most of them have a limited contact with rurality. Another negative function of higher education is that it shapes life and professional aspirations outside agriculture and encourages young people to leave rural areas. Higher education contributes indirectly to the unwillingness of rural youth to return to the countryside.
The aim of this article is to present the usage of spatial information infrastructure in agricultural activity. The spatial information infrastructure is understood as spatial datasets, which are available via web-based mapping application. Example of the Łódzkie Voivodeship Geoportal (www.geoportal.lodzkie.pl) was considered. The formal basis for the construction of the spatial information infrastructure in the European Union is the INSPIRE Directive, which was transposed in Poland by the means of the Act on spatial information infrastructure. According to the Polish law, numerous scattered institutions are responsible for spatial datasets. For example, the district geodetic and cartographic resources include i.a., the Land and Building Register. The regional geodetic and cartographic resources includes i.a., the Topographic Database at scale of 1:10 000, geodetic and cartographic materials related to: analysis of agrarian structure changes, programming and coordination agriculture works and monitoring changes in land use and soil valuation. The central resources include i.a, orthophotomaps, digital terrain model, soil and agricultural maps. Distributed “leading bodies” are responsible for topics related to agriculture, such as: land parcels, terrain layout, land use, ortho-images, geology, soil and spatial development. The national, regional and county geoportals are web map applications, which operate as access points to network services presenting distributed spatial datasets. They provide improved access to reliable and complete information on voivodeship’s area for all citizens, companies and institutions, including those related to agriculture.
The aim of this article is to review definitions of “resilience”, including regional and urban resilience, as well as to describe the interpretations of the terms. An effort is also made to identify the approaches taken to strengthen resilience in practice, as well as research approaches. Relevant literature is reviewed, and schools of thoughts regarding adaptability are also indicated. The review of the definitions of resilience shows how many emphasise the existence of external threats which it is first and foremost important for socio-ecological systems to withstand, before being in a position to mitigate effects, adapt to new circumstances, and also undergo transformation. Only less often is attention paid to internal factors that may lead to disturbances, but also favour or force reorganisation of a system. Newer definitions also highlight component elements of systems, such as individuals, households and communities; while highlighting issues of social inclusion. Notions of regional resilience most often relate to the economy, while definitions of urban resilience more often invoke urban functions and systems (including infrastructure aimed at preventing negative natural phenomena), as well as covering social issues. The literature in essence offers three distinguishable interpretations in resilience studies. These are important insofar as the acceptance of the appropriate one determines further research procedure, and even conclusions as to what is or is not a resilient system. It is engineering resilience, ecological resilience and evolutionary resilience that can be identified. Initially, it was the engineering-related interpretation that dominated in resilience research, even as today use is often made of a systemic approach referring to the interpretation of evolutionary (adaptive) resilience. On the other hand, transformational abilities are more and more often indicated as features of key importance to the building of resilient socio-ecological systems. Review of the literature on resilience shows that, among the approaches of practical value to its strengthening it is possible to distinguish such approaches as those involving disaster risk reduction, climate-change adaptation, social-ecological aspects, complex adaptive systems, livelihood, and agencies and institutions. Among the research approaches taken to the concept of resilience, it is possible to distinguish the equilibrium-related, systems perspectives, path dependence and the long view. And where schools of thought are concerned, there is a human capital agglomeration view; and industrial structure, economic variety and innovation approach considered along with the application of digital technologies in smart cities; and a third school putting the emphasis on institutions.
The aim of this article is to support another view of rural economies than one focused mainly on agriculture. The reason for such a view is the fact that the economic importance of other than agricultural economic activities (e.g. in manufacturing, services) in rural areas of developed countries is much larger than that of agriculture. Despite this new economic orientation of rural areas, rural developemt policies are still heavily focused on agriculture. To support these statements, a changing nature of rural economies of developed countries is discussed in contrast to the stagnating focus of rural studies and rural development policies.
The aim of this article was to examine the relations of physical and human geography with selected disciplines of natural and exact sciences as well as social sciences. The results shows that: (1) the position of geography among other disciplines is relatively high, however the relative position of human geography in social sciences is higher than that of physical geography in natural and exact sciences, (2) both geographical disciplines show an adverse ‘trade balance’ in scientific exchange, (3) human geography is more ‘introverted’, (4) relations between human geography and other disciplines are stronger than in the case of physical geography.
The aim of this article was to present changes on the domestic fruit and vegetable market, which were observed after Poland’s accession to the European Union. The change in consumer behaviour and the need to adapt the offer to the increasing market requirements caused the need to take measures enhancing the competitiveness of horticulturists. One of them is the integration of producers. The authors presented changes in the organization of fruit and vegetable producers in Poland in 2004–2017. It was noticed that the Polish horticulturists prefer the southern European model of market organization, consisting in the existence of many small producer groups/organizations. In Poland after 2012, the number of fruit and vegetable producer groups/organizations and the number of members associated in them decreased. Fruit and vegetable producers by establishing the group most often indicated a neutral possibility of selecting the product category, including both fruits and vegetables in their offer. It was noticed that the groups that were liquidated were mostly homogeneous – they offered either fruits or vegetables. Attention is paid to the increase in of integration among mushroom producers. Mushrooms became one of the most important export products. Despite the shrinking number of producer organizations, those remaining on the market are characterized by a relatively stable market power. Changes in the number of producer organizations were larger than changes in the market share.
The aim of this paper is the analysis of population projection for communes of the Dolnośląskie Voivodship for the period of 2013–2020. It has been predicted that by 2020 the population of the province will decrease by 36.8 thousand inhabitants. The highest depopulation is expected to take place in major cities of the region, however the population of rural areas of Dolnośląskie will rise by 23.3 thousand. Rural areas of the voivodship are characterized by considerable diversification of trends in demographic changes: population increase in suburban communes, stagnation or population decrease in other communes. Spatial diversification of demographic trends will contribute to changes in population distribution. At the regional scale, growth of population concentration will be observed within the Wrocław Functional Area. However, considering local systems, a deconcentration of population (caused by suburbanization processes) is expected to take place.
The aim of this paper is to compare policies and effects of financing the activities of producer groups by the EU funds in the financing periods: 2004–2006, 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The use of funds from the action ʺagricultural producer groupsʺ hitherto for the period 2004–2014 was examined by region. In the analysed period the EU funds distributed under the Common Agricultural Policy were the basic instrument influencing the development of producer groups in Poland, and consequently at the end of 2014 there functioned 1351 groups. The rules for granting financial support to groups across budget periods were similar and evolved towards more efficient use of support from the point of view of individual groups, as well as the competitiveness of the entire agricultural sector. The projected increase in the amount of support and good practices of the operating groups are likely to affect further development of producer groups.
The aim of this paper is to determine diversification of rural workforce education level in Poland. The research includes comparison regarding education level of these resources in rural-urban system allowing to identify regularity in location of rural workforce characterized by a particular education level. It was assumed in that workforce resources comprise of people at working age. Basing on research findings it may be stated that education level of rural workforce was lower than that in cities and Poland in general, yet compared to 2002 it has improved significantly. Formal qualifications of rural inhabitants at mobile age were higher than of those at immobile age. Distribution of rural labor force with higher and secondary education referred to the location of agglomeration. The proximity of urban and non-agricultural functions were factors contributing to the accumulation of well-educated personnel, as well as remote areas of routes and diverse urban labor markets included areas of high quality human capital outflow. The study also confirmed that agriculture, particularly in areas with predominance (in the past) of state farms unfavorable education structure of labor force has been perpetuated.
The aim of this paper is to explore the profile of tourists visiting Budapest, Prague and Warsaw. These cities were selected for their rich cultural heritage and change in volume of tourism in recent years. Survey data (N = 550) and statistical data on tourist volume were used to show similarities and differences in tourist characteristics in terms of socio-demographics and purpose of travel. The study concluded that most tourists visiting these cities are from Western Europe. The main purpose of travel is associated with cultural tourism offerings and entertainment. The study results help understand impact of city tourism development strategies on the tourist profile.
The aim of this paper is to identify, categorize, explain and interpret the process of ‘John-Paul-the-Secondisation’ which has been taking place for the last three decades in Poland. ‘John-Paul-the-Second-isation’ is perceived as a kind of landscape sacralisation, i.e. the process of filling the cultural landscape with objects and phenomena related to Pope John Paul II, his work and personality. The process is analysed on three basic levels: architectural, nominative and temporal. The growing cult of the ‘Polish Pope’ is a visible sign of social, cultural, religious and political factors influencing cultural landscape.
The aim of this paper is to identify the dimensions of resilience undertaken in literature, characteristics describing resilient systems and spatial scales in the context of which resilience research and strategic planning are carried out. The research method was desk research within which the papers that were reviewed were selected based on scientific journal reputation including the high Impact Factor. References to resilience in strategic planning were selected on the basis of information about international organizations dealing with resilience mentioned in scientific articles. Based on broad review, environmental, social, economic and institutional resilience have been identified. Important properties of social-ecological systems identified in the context of resilience include connectivity, modularity, redundancy, interdependence, and diversification, while resilience strategies specifically consider flexibility, resourcefulness, reflectiveness, dispersion, mutuality, inclusion, and integration. Research as well as strategic actions to strengthen resilience consider global spatial scale but also national, regional, local, neighbourhood, household and individual.
The aim of this paper is to provide empirical evidence for the statement that the constraints imposed on an objective function are able to reduce the entropy of the corresponding distributions produced by entropy-maximizing models. This idea is evaluated via an application to an entropy-maximizing spatial interaction model, as a typical representative of the family of entropy-maximizing models used in geography. Eleven versions of this spatial interaction model are fitted separately to six sets of data concerning interregional migration in Slovakia. For each model, the predicted flow distribution is derived, prior to calculation of the corresponding predicted entropy, and then comparison of the entropy values relating to all the models. The results obtained indicate very clearly that constraints imposed on an objective function reduce the initial maximum entropy successively, with this reduction depending on the number and nature of the constraints incorporated.
The aim of this paper was a comparative assessment of a production potential, organization, economic status and investment ability of two groups of farms from the Opolskie Voivodeship by implementing the Polish Farm Accountancy Data Network (Polish FADN) in 2015. The first group consisted of farms located in municipalities with high level of natural values and the second group comprised farms from other municipalities. Areas with high level of natural values were considered those, in which index of natural and tourist quality established by the Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation Institute was equal to or greater than the national average (at least 35.6% per 100% possible to achieve). The analysis employed data from farms conducting accountancy for the Polish FADN in 2015 and from the Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation – State Research Institute.
The aim of this paper was to determine the changes in the rural settlement network in Poland in 2000‑2019. The authors analyzed the status and dynamics of quantitative changes in the rural settlement network and their spatial differentiation and attempted to identify the main causes influencing these variations. The research procedure was based on the hypothesis that changes in the rural settlement network in Poland observed in the 21st century are not unidirectional, which leads to the emergence of different types of areas with diverse trends in their socio-economic development. The study showed a decrease in the density of the rural settlement network, an increase in the average size of villages and a significant regional variation in the values of individual parameters. There are also considerable disproportions in the trends of changes in the settlement network depending on location of rural areas in relation to large cities.
The aim of this paper was to identify trends in the development of rural hotel infrastructure in Poland in the period of 2012‒2017. The research encompassed star-ranked hotels. The objective was achieved by means of analysis concerning temporal and spatial changes in the number and structure of rural hotel facilities. Research involved cartographic analysis of a synthetic indicator based upon a modified Baretje-Defert tourist function index and hotel density indicator. During the period being examined development of rural hotel infrastructure was of a greater intensity comparing to urban areas. This rapid development was related to upscale hotels mainly. Spatial concentration of rural hotel facilities occurred in the outskirts of major agglomerations as well as traditional rural areas in the regions of Wielkopolska, Warmia, Kashubia, Carpathian Foothills, and Pilica river valley. During the investigated period rural hotel infrastructure developed mainly in the southern and eastern parts of Poland.
The aim of this report is to show the chronology of the works, that finally led to the organization of the Regional Conference of the International Geographical Union inPoland and to present short characteristic of the conference itself. After 80 years, international community of geographers met for the second time in our country. First time took place in Warsaw in 1934 during the IGU Congress, the second in Cracow last year during the Regional Conference. Last year’s scientifi c event was attended by about 1,400 participants from more than 60 countries from all over the world.
The aim of this research was to illustrate the relationship between the occurrence of very strong and extreme cold stress among human beings under the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) across Poland and largescale near-surface air temperature over the central part of Europe. The statistical downscaling procedure of canonical correlation analysis (CCA) with respect to the period between 1971 and 2000 was applied to extract the main modes of large-scale factors and their local responses. The greatest frequency of occurrence of the discussed cold stress exceeded 35% in January. Most of the variance (39-44%) of the local field in each winter month is explained by the first coupled canonical maps. T he main patterns of large-scale field show negative anomalies of monthly mean air temperature in central Europe from -1°C up to -3°C. It can indicate an increase in frequency of the occurrence of analysed cold stress categories throughout the entire area of Poland, by 2% to even over 10%, depending on the region. The best quality model was obtained in eastern Poland, especially in the north-east and south-west of Poland.
The aim of this research was to present selected problems of informal caregivers, who take care of elderly family members. The economic aspect of caregivers’ unpaid labor was estimated. The study considered structure of seniors’ care assistants in terms of age, education level, marital status and employment sector of workers and activity type of the unemployed. Data concerning rural areas was confronted with figures characterizing urban areas. Based on literature review in the field of gerontology, nursing and public health the author identified health and social risks related to the role of caregiver for people, who are “in the twilight” of their lives. It was found that theoretical knowledge concerning Caregiver Stress Syndrome (CSS) present in Polish scientific publications for the last five years does not reflect the actual needs of informal caregivers, who look after elderly family members. Public attention mainly focuses on seniors without recognizing the needs of caregivers.
The aim of this review has been to describe the phenomenon of the dendrochronological recording of air pollution. Special emphasis was placed on: (1) summarising relevant studies conducted previously both in Poland and abroad, (2) highlighting the research techniques applied most commonly, and (3) presenting the basic physiological and morphological consequences of the exposure of plants to harmful chemical substances present in the air. Although the problem of growth–ring reductions to industrial emissions has gained frequent investigation (e.g. Danek, 2007; Szychowska-Krąpiec, 2009; Malik et al., 2011, 2012), this paper would seem to represent a first attempt to review the achievements of the method in the Polishliterature.The dendrochronological method is widely regarded as the most precise dating technique in the Earth Sciences (e.g. Gärtner, 2007). As the final width of a single tree-ring refl ects both genetics and certain external factors, it is possible to make reference to rings in studying the spatial and temporal differentiation characteristic of various environmental phenomena. Since the 1970s, it has become clear that air pollution episodes may be recorded effectively in tree-ring series. Such chemical substances as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, fluorides and ozone are all toxic to plants, inasmuch as that they individually and collectively exert a negative influence on key physiological processes. They are thus responsible for patterns of reduced growth that can be dated with the year-to-year accuracy by means of dendrochronological techniques.Over the last forty years, much work around the world has been devoted to the above problem. Most has focused on study of the impact of harmful gaseous substances emitted from such point sources as smelters (e.g. Sutherland and Martin, 1990; Nojd and Reams, 1996) or fertiliser factories (e.g. Evertsen et al., 1986; Stravinskiene et al., 2013). Beyond that, some works haverepresented a broader approach researching air pollution impacts on a regional or international scale (e.g. Danek, 2007; Elling et al., 2009). In each case, the results reveal a more or less serious reduction of tree-rings corresponding well with periods of low air quality.The range of techniques gaining application in the studies described has been wide, though in the main it is the more complex ones that have generated more precise and reliable results. The simplest method is based on visual assessment of a curve showing the width of tree-rings over time. Visible, persisting low values combined with knowledge of the activity of some factory in the vicinity can lead to the drawing of conclusions as regards the causal relationship. Much fi eldwork is tailored to the sampling of reference (control) sites, not affected by air pollutants. Data from the study and the reference site are then compared using different statistical methods. Narrower rings formed by trees growing at the study site are taken to confirm thepresence of a phenomenon reflecting emissions from local industry. Another method, proposed by Schweingruber et al. (1985), is based on the analysis of characteristic years and abrupt growth changes.
The aim of this study has been to analyse long-term (1971–2015) changes in climatic conditions in the foothills and Beskid region of the Western Carpathian Mountains (South-Eastern Poland), on the basis of selected geoindicators calculated by reference to average annual and monthly air temperatures and precipitation. Climatic conditions were analysed for the Szymbark Research Station of the Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IGSO PAS). Average daily air temperature and daily amounts of precipitation were referred to. The average annual temperature over the 45 years (1971–2015) was 8.1°C. The annual temperature ranged from 6.3°C (1980) to 9.9°C (2014). In the multi-year period analysed, there was an increase in the average annual temperature of about 0.4°C/10 years, which testifies to an intensification of continental climatic characteristics, confirming the course of and trends of two geoindicators of climate, i.e. oceanism after Marsz (Oc) and continentalism after Gorczynski (KG). This increased average annual temperature has the effect of shifting the onset of the thermal pre-winter period (5-0° C) to the end of the year, while also increasing the length of the growing season, by an average of 5 days/10 years. The multi-year period analysed has also witnessed a decrease in the number of cold months. The average annual precipitation was 834 mm (1971–2015). This contrasts with the maximum amount (of 1164 mm) noted in 1974, as well as the minimum (of 535 mm) recorded in 1982. Overall, annual rainfall increased, by 16.2 mm/10 years. However, the rainfall geoindicator (LAN) showed a downward trend due to the increased the average annual air temperature. Equally, the pluviometric geoindicator P showed an increased trend influenced by ever-greater annual amplitude of temperature. Based on the classifications of monthly temperature and precipitation, it was find an increased trend of warm and wet months, as associated with a reduced incidence of cold and dry months. The values of indicators calculated for the Szymbark Research Station in 1971–2015 are similar to those recorded in other mountainous areas in Europe.
The aim of this study is assessment of thermal comfort conditions during heat waves in Ukraine in the years 1961-2015. The assessment is based on the thermal index Physiologically Equivalent Temperature. This study uses data from 29 meteorological stations across Ukraine. The research showed an increasing frequency of occurrence of heat waves (HWs) in the territory of Ukraine in the last decades. East and south Ukraine (except of coastal stations) experienced the most strenuous human-biometeorological conditions whilst HWs were recorded in the country. Lower mean PET values were found in Western region of the country. The obtained results suggest that the HW event of 2010 was the longest and the most strenuous HW in human-biometeorological terms since 1961.
The aim of this study is to analyze the quality of hotel enterprises’ services located in the rural areas of the Opolskie Voivodship and to examine new trends concerning leisure in the region’s countryside. The following research methods were involved: documentary method and field research aiming at inventory of hotel enterprises located in rural areas, diagnostic survey including in-depth interviews and guests’ opinion analysis. The study was conducted from February to March 2017. The spatial extent of the study comprised rural areas of the Opolskie Voivodship. It was found that increased interest in leisure in rural hotel enterprises results from the extension of offered services and adaptation to customers’ needs. These conclusions follow the latest trends observed in tourism related to improving the quality of services.
The aim of this study is to characterize pluvial conditions in the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The work comprises analysis of the long-term, annual and seasonal precipitation, as well as their spatial distribution and variability concerning the number of days with precipitation of a certain intensity in the period of 1981–2014. The study was based upon daily sums of atmospheric precipitation in years 1981–2014 derived from 5 synoptic stations, 9 climatological stations and 78 precipitation stations located in the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship (Fig. 1). The data was obtained from IMGW-PIB. The Wielkopolskie Voivodeship is an area with relatively low precipitation sums comparing to other regions of Poland. In the years 1981–2014, the average annual rainfall amounted to 548 mm and was characterized by high variability of rainfall amounts from year to year (Fig. 2, 3). The amplitude of fluctuations exceeded 500 mm. In the examined period, the average annual rainfall (from 92 stations) presents an upward trend (23 mm/10 years), the highest in the summer. The number of days with precipitation is increasing at a slower rate (Fig. 4). The distribution of rainfall in analyzed area is characterized by considerable spatial diversity (Fig. 5, 6, 7). The highest average sum of precipitation and the highest number of precipitation days were registered in the north-west, northern and southern parts of the region. On the contrary, the driest was the Wrzesińska Plain and the eastern part of the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship. Majority of the region is characterized by an average of 120–160 days with precipitation per year. The lowest number of such days are noted in the north-eastern part, and the highest – in the north-western part of the voivodeship (Fig. 8). In the seasonal distribution of rainfall, a clear prevalence of summer precipitation is visible, comprising 36.6% of the annual sum, with a maximum in July of 76.5 mm on average. The most intense precipitation, i.e. above 20 mm day, was least frequent in the central part of the study area (Fig. 9). The most diverse distribution is characterized by the weakest precipitation, i.e. less than 1 mm per day. Considerable variation in spatial distribution of precipitation indicates that rainfall is often of local nature. The amount and duration of precipitation as well as range depends on the cloud structure formed under specific synoptic conditions and local relief. The concentration of stations considered in a given area provides a more detailed image concerning the actual spatial variation of precipitation.
The aim of this study is to diagnose and identify trends for agricultural land use structure in the Central and Eastern European countries. Particular attention has been paid to the spatial differentiation characterising that structure, and to the significance that diverse kinds of conditioning have had in shaping it. Analysis has extended to the basic structural elements of agricultural land that are arable land, grasslands and permanent crops, while the countries included are the East-Central Europe acceding to the EU, i.e., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Slovenia and Bulgaria. The main sources of database have been Eurostat and FAO. The region under study emerges as very much diversified in terms of structure relating to structural elements of agricultural land. However, once the Eastern Bloc fell, all the countries experienced losses in area of agricultural land, as well as declines in the amounts of land growing permanent crops. Where key crops were concerned, the share of industrial species increase at the expense of vegetables, fruits and potatoes cultivation. Key factors underpinning observed trends for land use comprised privatisation and restitution of land, demographic processes in rural areas, domestic and EU agricultural policies as well as agro-ecological conditions.
The aim of this study was to determine how COVID-19 pandemic influenced air quality in the chosen Polish cities. Data on nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, fine and coarse particulate matter concentrations from air quality monitoring stations was used to compare pollutants levels during the pandemic and in the 5-year pre-pandemic period. The impact of the pandemic on the air quality has been analysed using linear mixed effect models, adjusting for long-term, seasonal and weekly trends and meteorological conditions. Results showed that during the pandemic, until the second lockdown only nitrogen oxides levels were significantly reduced (up to 20%), while when again loosening restrictions the rebound effect led to 20-30% increase of all analysed pollutants.
The aim of this theoretical work is to systemize and synthesize selected issues related to the approach to landscape. Presented here are: 1) selected holistic approaches to the cultural landscape, with particular attention paid to the added value of the current approach; 2) the rationale behind the devastated landscape being assigned to a separate category, rather than considered under the “cultural landscape” heading – and the essence of the associated typological separateness, as a logical inference from the interaction of the anthropogenic and natural systems in the formation of landscape properties, which emphasises the disappearance of cultural patterns as a devastated landscape is created; 3) an outline of research themes pertaining to landscape connectivity and permeability, as well as inter-penetration, with parallel depiction of substantive premises underpinning a somewhat different treatment of these properties. Given the progressive withdrawal of the term natural landscape, and also taking account of the category of cultural landscape and the level of anthropogenic pressure, the authors propose the division of the landscape into 3 categories: primary, cultural and devastated. This denotes an intentional separation and distinguishing of the devastated landscape, with the addition of this category justified in terms of the disappearance of cultural patterns that the formation of such a landscape entails.
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