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INSTYTUT ARCHEOLOGII I ETNOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ LITERACKICH POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAWCZY LEŚNICTWA
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII DOŚWIADCZALNEJ IM. MARCELEGO NENCKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BIOLOGII SSAKÓW POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT CHEMII FIZYCZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT CHEMII ORGANICZNEJ PAN
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INSTYTUT FILOZOFII I SOCJOLOGII PAN
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INSTYTUT GEOGRAFII I PRZESTRZENNEGO ZAGOSPODAROWANIA PAN
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INSTYTUT HISTORII im. TADEUSZA MANTEUFFLA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT JĘZYKA POLSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT MATEMATYCZNY PAN
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INSTYTUT MEDYCYNY DOŚWIADCZALNEJ I KLINICZNEJ IM.MIROSŁAWA MOSSAKOWSKIEGO POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT PODSTAWOWYCH PROBLEMÓW TECHNIKI PAN
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INSTYTUT SLAWISTYKI PAN
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SIEĆ BADAWCZA ŁUKASIEWICZ - INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW ELEKTRONICZNYCH
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MUZEUM I INSTYTUT ZOOLOGII POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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INSTYTUT BADAŃ SYSTEMOWYCH PAN
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INSTYTUT BOTANIKI IM. WŁADYSŁAWA SZAFERA POLSKIEJ AKADEMII NAUK
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- One of the most important factors influencing a city’s climate is the ventilation of a given urban unit. The most effective avenue of wind penetration into a built-up area is provided by uninterrupted urban greenery, thoroughfares and railway land radiating from the city centre as well as river valleys cutting through the entire city creating a unified system. These areas are called urban ventilation corridors or urban ventilation wedges. In Warsaw such an air exchange and regeneration system has been under development since the XIX century. The aim of this paper is to illustrate the rate and direction of land use changes in 1992-2015 and indicate the cause of current changes in the development of ventilation corridors in Warsaw. Visual interpretation of SPOT and LANDSAT satellite images and aerial orthophotomaps provided the data source for a database on the state of development of the ventilation corridors in time series. The analysis carried out established that the built-up area mostly spreads at the expense of agricultural land, which can negatively influence the way the parts of ventilation system operate. Moreover, different analyses were conducted in order to discover the cause of the changes, including analysis of the local zoning plans which were in force at the time in question.
- One of the most prominent characteristics of rural tourism in Poland is that it has seen many changes in the last 20 years. This stage can be called “new generation of rural tourism”. The Świętokrzyskie Province is one of the most attractive tourist areas in the southeast part of Poland. The nature and diversified landscape are considered a great asset in the development of different forms of tourism in this area. Rural tourism is an increasingly popular form of non-agricultural activity in this region. The article deals with the role of local resources of the village in the development of branded tourist products. Another issue under discussion are various forms of promotion of tourist activity in rural areas of the Świętokrzyskie Province. Świętokrzyskie is a region with exceptional qualities for the development of tourism in rural areas. The study shows that one from factors influeccing of effieciency of rural tourism undertaking is usage of promotion. Among forms of promotion, in greatest meaning plays: publicity (folders, catalogues) and activities of public relations and satisfied guests. Świętokrzyskie is an example that a good idea and joint action of the Świętokrzyskie Province, regional tourism organisations and owners of tourist objects can, with the engagement of small funds, bring considerable benefits.
- One of the social groups particularly hard hit by the COVID-19 pandemic is people experiencing homelessness, as they are especially vulnerable to infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV‑2). Still, the pandemic also drastically affected their livelihoods, as parts of municipal emergency assistance services have broken away. This article aims to highlight emergency responses of the Berlin Senate to people experiencing homelessness regarding COVID-19. The Senate is responding to the issue, among other things, by expanding and refiguring the existing contingent of shelters run by municipal emergency assistance services, preventing transmission of COVID-19 and treating those infected, and establishing mechanisms of tenant protection. The paper discusses to what extent Senate measures and interventions at the onset of the pandemic can address the emergent need for homeless assistance services in Berlin.
- The ongoing academic debate shows that urban community gardening has diverse governance models with differing roles for governmental organizations, NGOs and local communities. However, the perspective of community gardens governed by the involvement of institutions is rarely explored in academic research. This paper use a two-case study approach to explore the relations between community gardens and cultural institutions. We first identify factors that promote and impede the functioning of community gardens in partnership with cultural institutions. Next, we recognize initial governance models for selected case studies. Finally, we try to identify any changes in these governance structures, depending on the different stages of garden development and determine the reasons behind them. The results show these gardens are characterized by a changing governance model, shifting towards a top-down model, in which community members have no influence on strategic decisions. The involvement of cultural institutions in running community gardens is not assessed in a solely positive light. Although it facilitates their longevity, at the same time it may disempower their viability. <br>
- The opening of borders in 2012 changed a great deal where Polish-Russian relations are concerned. Before 2012, contacts between the citizens of Poland and inhabitants of Kaliningrad District were limited, with the border separating them being more in the nature of a barrier and line of separation restricting contacts between the neighbouring countries. A border of this kind was obviously a factor contributing to the peripherisation of the Polish-Russian borderland. In the whole of 2009 there were only 1 million crossings of the border in question. However, in the wake of the July 27th 2012 entry into force of the agreement on a visa-free zone and local border traffi c, more and more Russians from the Oblast of Kaliningrad chose to start visiting areas within the zone on the Polish side, as there are attractive from the tourism point of view, as well as offering places to relax and do shopping. In 2013 the number of crossings of the Polish-Russianborder exceeded 6 million.The introduction of visa-free traffi c has thus resulted in massive infl ows into Poland of inhabitants of Kaliningrad, who mostly spend their time in the large shopping centres, supermarkets and grocery shops. However, some Kaliningraders also travel to participate in the largest mass events held in Poland’s Tri-city of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot, and they are becoming more and more visible in the cityspace. There is no doubt that the high level of cross-border shopping activity and travel now has a key role to play in the economic development of the Polish borderland. While Polish citizens do not visit Kaliningrad as often as Russians visit Poland, they do make frequent crossings of the border to purchase Russian petrol, this being a wise decision given the fact that it is only around half as expensive. Overall, the opening of the border has led to a development of cross-border tourism, at the same time helping to improve relations between Poland and Kaliningrad Oblast, in line with a general willingness to learn and discover that is helping to gradually overcome stereotypes functioning within the neighbouring populations.Tourism is now therefore a popular activity for many people, and the development of the attendant infrastructure is proving very important for what are peripheral areas located in the borderland. This is in line with a general tendency for the type and level of openness of borders to exert a major infl uence on the nature and extent of the tourism capable of developing in their vicinity (Timothy, 2000).The main aim of this paper has thus been to present the infl uence of the opening-up of the border on the development of tourism in the Polish-Russian borderland.
- Openness and closure, understood as a physiognomic property of landscape, characterises the possibility of observing far out horizons and broad vistas. The degree of openness of landscape can be treated as a synthetic indicator of the evolution of the natural-cultural environment. A change in the degree of openness / closure of landscape is a lengthy historical-cultural process, lasting hundreds or even thousands of years. It has different course and dynamics in various climatic and vegetation zones. The purpose of the present article is to propose and describe a method of assessment and interpretation of the degree of actual openness of the cultural landscape and to discuss the results obtained, and of comparing the methodology proposed with analogous European elaborates. The average percentage of openness of landscape was assessed according to five classes. The source base for the study was constituted by the satellite images, Corine Land Cover maps, made legible through comparison with the land use maps presenting the state as of the turn of the 21st century. The method here proposed allows for the assessment of the continuous variability of landscapes, expressing the gradient from open to closed landscapes.
- The openness of rural areas in Poland to sport, observed in the second half of the last century, constituted a derivative of the dynamic transformation process in rural culture. The appearance of the new socio-cultural phenomena of mainly urban provenance, which came alongside the physical culture in rural communities, significantly affected and changed the lifestyle of rural population. Nowadays, when sport is deeply rooted in rural areas, similar phenomena may be observed. A good example is the expansion of the ‘football culture' which takes place due to extensive presence of sport clubs, most of which promote football in rural areas. The article serves as an explication of the footbalisation phenomena in rural areas in Poland in geographical categories and attempts to go beyond predominant sociological perspective regarding that matter. The aim of this article is to point out the relations between the spatial organization related to sport event and fans' activity. The authors, taking into account the spatial aspect as inherent in football competition, make an attempt to analyze the location and the function of football pitches and stadiums in local systems using the concept of place's function in morphological, spatial, economic and social perspective. By the application of an interdisciplinary approach the course of further research on this matter has been identified and justified.
- The operation of dams is the key cause of river discontinuity, with reduced flow velocity towards dams reflected in gradual change in the physicochemical properties of water, the concentration and characteristics of suspension matter, and the properties of bottom sediments. In the case of dam reservoirs operating in a cascade system, the most major transformations of river-water abiotic and biotic characteristics take place in the first reservoir of the cascade, with properties of the aqueous environment in consecutive bodies of water then affected markedly. Detailed here, research conducted in the Upper Volga Reservoirs in Russia sought to assess the size and nature of changes in the physicochemical properties of water and in characteristics of the suspended material and bottom sediments that take place along the longitudinal profile of this Cascade of reservoirs. Results were then used to determine the relationships pertaining between the separate reservoirs of the Cascade, and to recognise the capacity for the typical longitudinal zonation to be reproduced in consecutive reservoirs along the cascade. The reservoirs of the upper part of the Volga Cascade are located in an area of limited environmental contrast. In such a situation, variability to the physicochemical properties of water and characteristics of the bottom sediments along the longitudinal profile are conditioned primarily by hydrological factors. The study showed that the functioning of the reservoirs as part of a cascade system did not result in the disappearance of the characteristic three-section aquatic environment, expressed by the presence of riverine, transitional and lacustrine zones. The equivalent of the riverine zones in the second and subsequent reservoirs are backflow zones, which extend to the dam of the upstream reservoir. The high-energy, erosive force of water downstream from dams denotes hydrodynamic conditions similar to those in the upper, riverine sections of reservoirs operating independently. The presented three-section model for the reservoirs was preserved mainly in terms of diversified bottom-sediment properties. A regularity detected entailed decreasing mean grain size towards the dam, and a parallel increase in OM content in the sediment. A significant impact on bottom–sediment properties is also exerted by the velocity and direction of currents, by depth and bottom morphology, and by the properties of the clastic material supplied to the reservoir from various sources. Only to a lesser extent is the three-section model of the aquatic environment in reservoirs evident in physicochemical properties of the water. However, the intense turbulence present in water below dams ensures such strong mixing that vertical gradients in water temperature are realigned, and oxygenation of bottom layers of water improved. In this sense, these particular sections of reservoirs are similar to the riverine zones of reservoirs operating independently. The presence of less-mineralised water in the lower, deepest sections of the reservoirs and below dams indicates a hydrochemical connection between the consecutive bodies of water. Furthermore, a significant influence on changes in the course of analysed parameters must be ascribed to local conditions, with the impacts of tributaries, but also other local factors like depth, the presence of erosional banks and intensity of shipping, proving just as important as causes of disturbance to the river continuum as dams.
- Opinions on three gas pipeline projects—Nord Stream, South Stream and Nabucco in five European countries: Germany, Italy, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria are analysed. In Germany there is a consensus that Nord Stream is good for Germany, Russia and Europe; objections of other countries against it are not taken as a serious problem. There is a controversy concerning economic viability and political purposefulness of Nabucco. In Italy the government and business support South Stream and are sceptical about Nabucco while some experts express concern of detrimental effects of South Stream on Nabucco and on solidarity in the EU. In the central European countries there is a conviction that Nord Stream and South Stream are elements of geopolitical game of Russia and that it would be advantageous for the to participate in both South Stream and in Nabucco.
- The Orava – Nowy Targ Basin is one of 31 basins found in the Western Carpathians. While average in size (643 km2), it is the only basin where large amounts of water are stored in vast peat bogs. Until the 16th century, it had not been inhabited and the amount of water stored in peat at that time was estimated to be 171 million m3. Due to the anthropogenic degradation of peat bogs the amount of water has decreased 2.7 times and it is now estimated at 62 million m3 . Two dams built in the basin, in the second half of the 20th century, retain reservoirs that store 563 million m3 of water. This amount of water exceeds the earlier loss of water in peat five times over. If the planned, more ambitious project of dam construction in the basin had been completed, the total capacity of the reservoirs would exceed the water loss in peat by 27 times. The index of lake retention including peat in relation to the area of the basin is determined to be currently 98 cm, but if the project of maximum development of the reservoirs in the basin had taken place, it would reach 270 cm. The estimated useful lifetime of the reservoirs studied suggests theoretically an 80% loss of their initial capacity over a timescale of one thousand years. Taking into account the current regeneration of peat bogs, there is an optimistic outlook for the protection of the natural and anthropogenic water resources of the basin.
- Orchard holdings play an important role in rural development in the Grójec county. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the number of holdings specialising in fruit production in this area has been steadily increasing. With the increase in the number of holdings, significant changes are taking place also in terms of their functioning. These changes are caused by technological progress, as well as imposed European Union policy demanding adaptation of the holdings and their production systems to the norms and standards of the EU Member States. Since Poland has joined the European Union, the level of holdings development is steadily improving. The level of equipment of holding with durable means of production is improving and thanks to that holdings have the opportunity to archive better production results and higher income from production. The increase in holdings income contributes to the improvement of the economic situation of the villages. Technological development is accompanied by intellectual development (an increase in the level of educational attainment), which manifests as the increase in the quality of human capital in the villages. The functioning of the fruit farms entails the implementation of the number of investments in rural areas, which contributes to their development. In the holdings are created modern facilities for storing fruit. In the rural areas arises the number of entities serving orchard holdings, for example the purchases of fruit, fruit processing plants and distribution points of protection products, fertilizers and machinery. In this article the orchard holdings operating in Grójec county are characterised in terms of their land resources, human resources and durable means of production. The description of orchard holdings was based on the results of the own research and study, conducted in 2015, as well as on the results of the Agricultural Census in 1996 and 2010.
- Our analysis sets out a methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of regional development programmes in Ukraine. Specifically, we investigate to what extent the Ukrainian approach to regional development policy resembles the successful approach taken by the EU programmes of Cohesion Policy in the post-2004 New Member States. In addition, drawing on initial versions of Ukrainian national and regional models, we illustrate how the bottom-up regional approach initiated in Ukraine needs to be co-ordinated with a top-down national perspective that identifies and distinguishes national development objectives from specifically regional objectives. Such methodologies, suitably adapted, will be required during post-war reconstruction. <br>
- Out of many approaches to landscape connectivity, we choose patch-mosaic, flow-neutral framework for modelling. Our new software system GraphScape transforms a vector mosaic map into landscape graph, finds shortest paths and combines them into minimum spanning tree. The result is an optimal network of connections for a given set of patches. To capture mobile agent properties, we use two types of resistance assigned to patches and transfer resistance assigned to combinations of patch classes. Another alternative is step-model, when transfers occur as if on unweighted graph. Resulting MST is rendered by linear skeleton (binary), Transit Density measure assignable to patches (continuous), and summary statistics. A novelty is compete workflow from vector-based map to complex graph structures. We describe concepts and operation of software. GraphScape can be used for ecological corridors planning, identification of key areas of corridors overlap, identification of the role of particular mobility factors, assessment of patch isolation.
- Over recent years the sea has experienced re-interpretation as marine space, or more specifically as marine spatial planning (MSP) space. This article uses the concept of place as a contrasting interpretation to space, referring to place-making as a metaphor for the various ways in which meaning is created in the sea. As expressions of an intimate connection between experienced materiality and symbolism, places (unlike space) are never abstract, but always carry emotional dimensions. Place attachment can be the result of everyday profe ssional links, recreational activities, or living by the sea, and arises despite the greater intangibility of locations in the sea. As a result of their greater physical intangibility, places in the sea may require more frequent (re-)making than places on land, pointing to the inherent importance (and value in their own right) of the associated (socio-cultural) processes of place-making. The ability to engage in place-making is thus an important avenue for expressing place-based values, an understanding which could be used to enrich marine spatial planning processes. Focusing more on the intimate connections people have with places in the sea and how quality of place matters to them could turn MSP into an enabler of place-making, becoming more of a rich and continuous dialogue around the multiple ways in which people interact with and value the sea.
- Over the last three decades, agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe has undergone very profound change. This first and foremost reflected the collapse of the communist system, as well as accession to the European Union in the case of most of the CEECs. The work detailed here has thus had as its cognitive goal the identification of trends regarding selected components of agriculture’s spatial structure which have included agrarian structure, agricultural land use, and the structure of agricultural production. Attention has also been paid to what conditioned the transformation, as well as the spatial differences that characterised it. With a view to these objectives being achieved, 11 current EU Member States in the region were analysed, above all by reference to source materials from EUROSTAT and the FAO.
- Over the past decade, Industry 4.0 technologies have spread in space and time to varying extents, this being influenced by many factors. Evaluating some of these is the main aim of this study, as they have received little attention so far. Based on the experiences of empirical research (questionnaire survey) carried out in a peripherally located, traditional industrial area of Hungary and using statistical methods, the main significance of the study is that it highlights that sectoral affiliation, the internal organisation of companies and the geographical location of their sites, as well as their social and economic environment, all contribute to the intensity of technological change.
- Over the past twenty years urban “networking” has become a rule of behaviour in the European Union. This article concerns the development of urban networks within the European urban geography. Urban networks have an important role in disseminating a development model for urban areas by bringing together a diverse range of cities around common problems in order to create common understandings of how to address these problems—the new ‘conventional wisdom’. These networks have also developed a range of different methods “to be active” in order to achieve different territorial outcomes. In that sense, which are the outcomes of those cities that have shown a strong “aptitude in urban networking”?
- Over the past years, there has been a dramatic increase in congestion in suburban zones of the largest cities in Poland. One of the solutions to minimize this phenomenon is to increase the role of public transport in the context of movement from suburban zone to the core of agglomeration. Railway transport is environmentally friendly and is independent of congestion, therefore can play a particularly significant role in transport system. However, the issue concerns determining railway passenger volume, because it is necessary that railway transport becomes competitive comparing to private transport. There are many factors that influence travel behavior, which may be divided into two groups: internal and external. It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the growing importance of external factors in literature, particularly transit oriented development. According to the author, in the suburban area of Poland, where the railway transport offer is comparable, it is important to examine what is the impact of external factors. The aim of the paper is to examine how the integration between housing development and railway station affects rail transit passenger volume in the rural areas of Wrocław suburban zone. The analysis is based on spatial statistics implementing GIS tools (mean center, distance to nearest hub, buffer). The research results confirmed correlation between degree of integration and passenger volume. This leads to a conclusion that spatial development of suburban zones must be coordinated with railway in order to ensure effectiveness of transport system.
- The paper aims at analysing the role of entrepreneurship in the educational strategy of European Union as well as the position of business education in the systems of national education in selected European states in relation to the level of entrepreneurial development in these countries, measured by the indexes of the number of firms per person according to various size classes. An attempt will be made to determine to what degree the guidelines and objectives of business education in particular countries create favourable conditions for growing new firms, especially in the SME sector.
- The paper aims at interpreting inter-linkages between environmental changes and rural out-migration and at assessing their impacts on quality of life of rural women with a case illustration of Upper Kosi Catchment, Uttarakhand Himalayas, India. The results indicate that the availability of water, fuel-wood and fodder decreased, agricultural production declined and livelihood opportunities were reduced mainly due to depletion of natural resources. Consequently, the male out-migration increased by 15% during 1981–2011. This increased workload of women by 25%, more than 40% women are under severe threat of a variety of health risks generated mainly due to excess work-load, under-nourishment and lack of hygiene and sanitation.
- The paper aims to understand the morphological transformation of the urban network of Wrocław caused by the rapid development and urban growth impacts. In an attempt to investigate the reason for morphological transformation of Wrocław urban network, the study focuses on the analysis of their spatial transformation through the comparative syntactic analysis during the historic process of growth of Wrocław. The spatial analysis based on ‘Space Syntax’ theories and techniques.
- The paper analyses spatial differences in voter turnout during the 2016 and 2020 Lithuanian Parliament elections. The article delves into the problem of spatial differentiation of young voter turnout, paying special attention to the most segregated metropolitan regions. The relationship between youth turnout and changes in the support of individual parties in different polling units is also sought. The results show that the voting activity of young citizens depends on their political preferences towards right-wing parties. Political preferences and turnout are polarised in central and peripheral regions and new political players such as the Freedom Party can influence young residents’ political behaviour.
- The paper analyses the educational infrastructure of Blagoevgrad district, the main characteristics and bureaus of vocational education, the type of training programs and their linkages with the specific expertisedemand of the regional economy and the different communal services. Vocational education is crucial for the formation of knowledge and skills of the workforce and to overcome the gap between the qualitativecharacteristics of labour demand and jobs offered. The study covers the period 2001–2011 - the period when Bulgaria was preparing to join the European Union and when the country became a member of this organization.During that period, several changes in the educational system and the organization and functioning of the labour market occurred.
- The paper analyses three forest types belonging to the following associations: (1) fresh pine forest (Peucedano-Pinetum), (2) mixed pine forest (Querco roboris-Pinetum) and (3) oak-hornbeam forest (Tilio cordatae-Carpinetum betuli). They are located in north-eastern Poland. We compared the indicator value of three sets of data: (1) phytosociological relevés representing ancient forests (each type/association), (2) phytosociological relevés representing the youngest recent forests with the shortest regeneration period (each type/association) and (3) the ‘abstract pattern’ (representing the core of a specific type of plant community with a characteristic combination of species and clearly representing a separate type of ecosystem/association). Three sets of data together with their indicator values/numbers: light intensity (L), soil moisture (F), soil reaction (R), and nitrogen supply (N) according to the Ellenberg scale, constituted the basic material for comparative indicator analysis. The percentage shares of ecological groups of species have been calculated as well as the average indicator values for each of these within a data set. The results obtained show that the ‘abstract pattern’ can be treated as a good measure for the evaluation of ancient forest habitat conditions; it is clearly visible in the mean L and F indicator values of the Peucedano-Pinetum and Querco-Pinetum associations, and also in the N of Peucedano-Pinetum and R of Querco-Pinetum, which are closer to ancient forest than to recent forest. In all cases, we found ecological differences between the ancient and recent forests based on their indicator values. Statistically significant differences of the mean L indicator values between ancient forest and recent forest have been found in three types of forest community.
- The paper analyses two interrelated fields: residential differentiation in the Vilnius metropolitan area on the basis of socio-economic status and of political alignment. Data from the 2001 and 2011 censuses were used to investigate socio-economic and ethnic segregation and data from the parliamentary elections of 2000 and 2012 were used for the analysis of political alignment. Indices of segregation and isolation were calculated, and the main occupational groups were used as a proxy for socio-economic status. GIS tools were used to visualise existing spatial differences. Though most indices indicated quite low levels of segregation, the situation was changing. The wealthiest and poorest groups tend to live more and more separately. The political preferences of the different social groups differ and differentiation of political field is increasing. The paper reveals socio-political spatial interrelations in the metropolitan area which have a unique ethnic structure. Our findings suggest that socio-economic structure is a major factor determining the degree of differentiation of electoral alignment in the metropolitan area. The different political preferences of the different ethnic groups could be related not simply to ethnicity but rather to socio-economic status.
- The paper attempts to define Berlin’s functional profile, contrasting it with the expectations and evaluations of the last twenty years. By analyzing employment and investment shares according to sections of the economy (the SIC index) several activities are identified which fulfil the following criteria: they are representative of Berlin, they show progressive development trends, and their role is reflected in the structure of investment outlays. In the analysis, the location co-efficient is used, which allows for the identification of the characteristic features of Berlin’s functional profile against the national average structure. The analysis proves that Berlin has been developing in a relatively ambiguous manner, though its functional specialization is rather stable, in that it has experienced only slight structural changes since the beginning of the 1990s. It is also observed that the position of Berlin in the German urban system is quite stable. In this context, the question is posed as to whether Warsaw’s position in the Polish urban system, as expressed in its functional profile, should, when one considers all the parallels and differences, resemble or not the one held by Berlin in Germany.
- The paper attempts to discuss research on spatial variation in the distribution of the headquarters of 100 leading IT corporations by city in the years 2003-2011. The research shows that the global space offers powerful opportunities for differentiating the headquarters of leading IT corporations. This is emphasised by the number of headquarters per city and their spatial concentration. Predominantly, they can be found in six areas: the Japanese-Korean area, eastern China, the West Coast of the USA, the East Coast of the USA, the central part of the USA, and north-western Europe. Tokyo, Kyoto, Hsinchu, Paris, Santa Clara, San Jose, Sunnyvale and Taipei offer the best conditions for locating headquarters of IT corporations and house the highest number of headquarters.
- The paper concerns investigations on urban geomorphology. The subject of the paper is the historic centre of Kraków (or Cracow) where the pre-human relief became masked due to the rapid increase in cultural deposits from the mid-13th century onwards. The aim of the investigation is the reconstruction of the original topography, relief and hydrography of this area based on rich sources of materials in papers and non-published data on geology, geoengineering, archaeology, history, and also on maps and panoramic drawings of the town. A digital elevation model has been generated, which showed the topography of the study area in the period before the mid-13th century. Structural analysis, cross validation test and estimation by ordinary kriging method were carried out. The final cartographic work was prepared with the use of QGIS and Surfer software. The distribution of landforms in the study area in the mid-13th century is presented as a proposed variant of the geomorphological map prepared by the authors. The former relief was evaluated in terms of its potential for encouraging settlement.
- The paper concerns the new classification of landscapes carried out with regard to the level of landscape anthropogenic transformation and the intensity of landscape use. The paper presents the classification system and the results of its implementation in the Polesie National Park nature conservation plan. The European Landscape Convention obliges the Council of Europe member states to maintain or establish landscape quality features expected by the public, that is, to develop specific landscape quality indicators. One of the consequences of this provision is the need to identify and classify landscapes occurring on the territory of particular countries, analyse their characteristic features and identify the set of landscape quality indicators expected by the public in particular regions. The level of anthropogenic landscape transformation and the harmonization of landscape use constitute one group of such indicators. In the evaluation process of Polish landscapes, with respect to the level of their anthropogenic transformation, landscapes were divided into 3 types: natural, natural-cultural and cultural landscapes. Within each of them 4 subtypes were distinguished, in relation to the intensity of landscape resources use by the society and the resulting processes of degradation, balance (harmony), regeneration, or restoration of landscape systems. As a result, a 12-degre valuation scale was developed. Applying the scale to particular spatial landscape units makes it possible to create a map of anthropogenic landscape transformation level and the degree of landscape use harmonization (balance) in the investigated area.
- The paper describes a problem of application of GIS tools and RS materials in research on tourism and recreation. The problem is discussed on the basis of the concept of ecosystem services. Focused on humannature relations, it deserve social and natural sciences methods to be joined. The paper discusses the problems of scope (natural, social) and scale (spatial, time, social). Examples of GIS and RS materials that could serve to gather data on ecosystem services for different forms of sailing are given. A big potential of such materials is presented. However, data obtained through GIS analysis often has to be combined with results of fieldwork.
- The paper discusses a range of areas, including a critical assessment of the state and accomplishments of Polish geography of crime; the theoretical and methodological achievements of various academic fields and disciplines that contribute to research into crime; and the underutilisation by Polish geographers of worldwide scientific achievements in this area. The paper outlines the interpretative possibilities extensively developed within other academic disciplines and pertaining to the study of crime that are now open to geographers.
- The paper discusses main theoretical and methodological assumptions regarding designation of ecological corridors and determination of their boundaries. It presents a review of concepts of ecological corridors prepared in Poland and draws attention to the lack of legal instruments which would ensure ecological network continuity. The paper discusses the state and scope of works on the implementation of the concept of the Lublin Ecological Network in updated spatial development plan of the Lublin Voivodship.
- The paper examines annual extreme sea levels along the Polish Baltic coast. The analysis is based on water level data sets collected at gauging stations in Świnoujście, Kołobrzeg, Ustka, and Gdańsk in the years 1946-2001. The article also draws upon historical data. The results of the study show that differences between the maximum and minimum levels have increased, particularly during the last 50 years. Sea level amplitudes tend to be wider in the western part of the Baltic coast than in the eastern part. Extreme sea levels occur in the autumn and winter months.
- The paper identifies mechanisms that potentially inhibit convection at a time when extreme values of selected atmospheric instability indices are recorded. The study involved six indices (LI, SI, CAPE, KI, SWEAT, TTI). Data sources involved records from three Polish data stations collecting upper air soundings and covered the period 2005-2014. Additional data were obtained from SYNOP codes on present and past weather and reports on severe meteorological phenomena from the European Severe Weather Database. The methodology adopted allowed the selection of 26 cases where no convective phenomena were observed despite extreme atmospheric instability. A detailed analysis demonstrated that the occurrence of isothermal or inversion layers in the lower and middle troposphere were the most frequent mechanisms inhibiting the vertical air movement. Convection was also inhibited when the area was free from the influence of atmospheric fronts, convergence zones, lowpressure troughs or when high altitudes of LCL occurred.
- The paper is discussing the role of energy production from renewable sources in the rural areas of Central Europe, the South-Moravian Region (Czechia) being the case study area. Based on this example the problems with the use of water, wind, sun, geothermal and biological sources for the energy production are illustrated. The environmental, technological, economic and social aspects of the matter are discussed. It was concluded that the use of renewable sources for decentralised energy production and consumption is strongly recommended for the rural areas. Concerning the mass production, the use of the biological sources seems to be meaningful. In the case of other sources, rural communes should be careful taking into account an environmental and economic impact and also the acceptance of local inhabitants.
- The paper is intended to examine fundamental research problems connected with two processes that currently feature in urban space: demolition and regeneration as well as relationships between them seen from the perspective of diverse conceptual and theoretical approaches debated in geographic urban studies. Regeneration understood as a sequence of planned actions is about the redevelopment of degraded urban areas. Its idea is to introduce spatial, economic, social, and cultural changes in these areas to restore their social attributes, such as: improved standard of living, sustainable positive relations among various user groups, improved comfort in using the areas, and elimination of the existing inequalities. Demolition of a city means destruction of its infrastructure leading to morphological, functional, social, and cultural transformations. Knowledge about the reasons, course and effects of demolition helps us decide what types of demolition best fit given circumstances and subsequently propose effective remedy measures. By identifying relationships between demolition and regeneration in contemporary cities we can learn more about both processes and, consequently, more efficiently modernise organisation of space and its arrangement to meet the needs and requirements of present and future users. In conclusion we propose research questions which delineate the direction of further interdisciplinary studies in this field.
- The paper is the result of a review of contemporary scientific literature on local-community participation in spatial planning. The aim of the review has been to determine those concepts which constitute the theoretical basis for studies, the areas in which the participation of a local community in planning is being examined, and the methods of involving inhabitants gaining most frequent description in the literature. The review included 96 relevant scientific articles from 2010‑2019 that are available in the Web of Science database. In practice, this literature is found to feature marked diversity when it comes to the ways in which community participation in planning is embedded theoretically. While the underpinning concepts derive mainly from the socio-political sciences, management, ecology or human geography are also represented, and reference is often made to the concept of deliberation and collaboration, as connected with the theory of communicative action. Note should also be taken of the importance of knowledge (especially lay knowledge) and learning as relatively new key concepts in the literature regarding social aspects of spatial planning. The said literature focuses on the search for new ways in which residents can be activated as regards planning, as well as ways in which they can be tested. There is therefore a prevalence of works that detail innovative initiatives by which inhabitants’ views on the space in which they function can be gained. Little attention is paid to translating the opinion and knowledge obtained from the community into planning decisions – this being an issue that researchers either ignore or treat very vaguely. This is then a significant gap in the output under analysis. The analysed works present local-community involvement in planning, mainly in urbanised areas, but also in valuable natural areas, including forests, wetlands, rivers, etc. Relatively little attention is paid to social participation in the planning of villages and small towns outside large agglomerations. It is surprising that there is very little work on grassroots community initiatives aimed at the local-level planning of space. The use of modern technologies in gauging society’s opinions and knowledge on space is what proves dominant where methodological scope is concerned. There is wide discussion of the possibilities and advantages inherent in methodology based on PPGIS and VGI.
- The paper outlines the creative achievements of nine Polish scholars and political activists living in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They were the precursors of the idea of the political unification of Europe. They argued, in their various works, that it was necessary to establish the unity and brotherhood of the nations of Europe. They postulated the liquidation of political boundaries and the establishment of a community of free states on the European continent.
- The paper presents a study of changes in the overall population of Poland and in the number and proportion of the 60+ age group. Popular census data spanning the period 1960-2011 was analysed at the level of commune-equivalent units (LAU 2). The study identified 9 types of communes based on two criteria: absolute population change and the proportion of the 60+ age group.
- The paper presents an analysis of changes in the level of development taking place in 913 of Poland’s urban gminas (local-authority areas), in relation to their locations as regards the country’s transport corridors. To achieve the objectives set, use was made of a database with the results of two assessments (for 2004‑2014 and 2008‑2018) – carried out to monitor the development situation of towns and cities in Poland, and with a view to relevant regional policy being pursued (Śleszyński, 2017; Śleszyński et al., 2017). The two indicators (in fact indices) used were the synthetic development index (SWR) relating to the status at a given point in time, and the development distance index (WDR) encapsulating change over time. The SWR was based on 14 sub-indicators (demographic old age, migration balance, population education, schooling level, income poverty, social activity, accessibility of services, general level of economic development, advanced entrepreneurship, local-government wealth, population wealth and investments, unemployment rate, spatial accessibility and level of urbanisation). In contrast, the WDR was compiled by reference to 7 sub-indices (change in the registered population, population forecast, change in numbers unemployed, change in own to gmina budgets, change in the numbers of accommodation places, change in the number of registered businesses and change in numbers of seats of large companies). Values for these synthetic indicators noted for given years were then set against location in respect of Poland’s main express routes (at a node or junction, at a location along a corridor, or at a location beyond a corridor) and its urban centres (in this way identifying centres – be they towns and cities – within agglomerations or considered peripheral). The routes taken account of were freeways, expressways, and dual carriageways providing for faster traffic. Cities with the lowest SWR values were shown to be those located between corridors. Moreover, centres within agglomerations always reported higher values for the development indices than did other centres (e.g. in Central Pomerania, Masuria and Warmia, the Sudetes Mountains and the southern part of Lubelskie Voivodeship). At the same time, a status as located in an agglomeration is seen to be more important than a status as located along a transport corridor. Basically speaking, in the case of the WDR indicator, the increased importance of development functions in all categories of centre was more marked where locations were in hubs or along transport corridors. In the case of population changes, a faster rate of growth is expected in gminas in nodal locations in particular. In turn, both supra-regional and regional centres will lose out (i.e. depopulate), with the location in relation to the main transport corridors mattering little in this respect. Only in the case of the smallest peripheral towns is a location along a route expected to halve the rate of population decline. To that cautious extent, transport location (understood as siting along the corridor of a freeway or expressway) may be considered to exert an effect in inhibiting present and near-future depopulation. Beyond that, these results are able to point to a positive influence of a location along a main transport route in Poland, with this however denoting a growing developmental gap (i.e. increased disparities) between urban centres (large or small) that are within agglomerations, as opposed to their peripheral counterparts.
- The paper presents an analysis of correlations between water levels in Polish lakes and the rate of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the years 1976-2010. The detailed analysis of the spatial variability of the effect of NAO on water levels in lakes concerned 19 lakes with statistically uniform hydrometric material. Two matrices were obtained for each of the lakes, composed of 156 coefficients of correlation calculated between monthly water stages and monthly and seasonal NAO indices. They provided the basis for performing two variants of classification of lakes by Ward’s method. Four typological classes were distinguished for each variant. It was determined that stronger correlations occur in the case of water stages in lakes with seasonal than those with monthly NAO indices. The strongest effect of NAO on water stages is observed in the winter-spring period. Spatial variability of the effect has been recorded, resulting from the climatic conditions of a given region. Lakes located in the south-western part of the studied area constitute an evidently separate group. In the negative phase of NAO, they are distinguished by higher water stages in the winter-spring period. This may be associated with more frequent thaws during winters, and increased supply to lakes in the period.
- The paper presents analysis of long-term changes in average, maximum and minimum annual and semi-annual and monthly average river runoff of the Vistula (Tczew and Zawichost water level gauges) and Bug (Wyszków water level gauges) in the years 1951–2015. The data came from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute (IMGW-PIB). Using the Mann-Kendall test and the directional coefficient β expressed by the Theil-Sen estimator, a multi-temporal trend analysis was carried out, which allowed to determine the direction, significance and strength of flow trends and indicate the periods in which the direction of trends reversed. A multi-temporal trend analysis allows for the calculation of periods covering every possible combination of the beginning and end year. The minimum duration of the calculation period is 20 years. The changes observed in average river runoff were fluctuating in nature and in large part were statistically insignificant. In the case of maximum flows the decreasing tendencies were prevalent, while in the case of minimal flows increasing tendencies were. On the Bug, much of the analyzed trends were statistically significant. In the surveyed for many years, the trend changed twice, around 1965 and 1980.
- The paper presents basic assumptions of the original “Model for revitalization of the cultural landscape of former State Agricultural Farm (Pol. “PGR”) villages, including the degree of their devastation”. The crucial assumption of the proposed Model is the use of a potential that exists in the extremely valuable elements of cultural heritage in form of residential mansions in manorial villages, as the paradigm for rebuilding spatial order and activating the village. The model assumes that several analyses, included in the “historical – compositional study” and “analysis of the transformations of the spatial system”, introduced during the activity of the State Agricultural Farms, will be conducted in its initial stage, with emphasis on elements that degrade its compositional qualities. The result of these analyses and studies should form the definition of “preserving manor farm complex” and the “degree of village spatial system transformation” that will include results of analyses of the initial stage. The effects of valuating actions should lead to selecting areas and spatial elements that require different forms of action, leading – on the one hand– to halting the landscape devastation process, and on the other – to returning lost qualities. After the valorization it will be possible to formulate project principles necessary for further action aiming at revitalization of village cultural landscape. The model for revitalization of manorial villages’ cultural landscape, taking into consideration extent of their devastation will be developed mainly with the need of enacting appropriate tool, that could form the basis to formulate the content of local regulations, pursuant to the Act of 27 March 2004 on planning and zoning (Polish Journal of Laws “Dz.U.” No. 80, item 717). Most of the study for spatial transformations of the village should become such a tool, which can be used already at the stage of municipal study for conditions and zoning regulations. It should list the degraded areas that require transformation
- The paper presents results of the research concerning formal representations of the rural in Poland. K. Halfacree’s (2006) research model of rural space was applied. Theoretical framework of the study also comprises debate on defining the rural under post-structuralism and some considerations of rural renewal. The research employed content analysis of rural renewal programmes in Poland. The outcomes were interpreted and discussed in relation to a broader process of socio-economic and cultural transformation and the notion of change in the rural space. It was explained how the formal representation of the rural is created in the rural renewal programmes. The formal representation of the rural in rural renewal programmes does not vary in regional terms, often being chaotic and incoherent. The rural is perceived through rural community and rural space separately, and as a broader concept opposite to the urban. Representation refers to, first and foremost, rural identity. However, it does not specify what defines such identity. It merely reproduces certain tags and slogans about the rural, and thus it is based on the rural myth. It also dissociates itself from agriculture as an economic function, but not as a culture-forming one.
- The paper presents selected problems of development of tourism within the areas neighbouring upon the Polish eastern border. Currently the boundaries with Belarus, Ukraine and the Kaliningrad district of Russia constitute the outer boundaries of the European Union and the Schengen zone, with strengthened protection and increased difficulty of crossing them. Borders determine the nature of the tourist space and its elements that will develop in frontier regions. First of all the borders constitute spatial barriers for tourism development and movement. On the other hand they often coincide with valuable natural landscapes and a numerous historical and cultural attractions. They possess, therefore, a high tourist potential. In the paper the influence of the most important elements on tourist attractiveness of a border-adjacent area are presented in the case of eastern border area of Poland. Tourism, in the vicinity of eastern boundaries of Poland, is generally characterised by poor tourism-related development and lack of tourist traditions, as well as low degree of recognition as tourist destination. In the transboundary setting, tourism within the eastern borderland is based almost exclusively on the price differentials. These are both trade and transit, as well as short tourist visits.
- The paper presents some aspects of Warsaw’s climate, in particular the urban heat island. UHI changes in different seasons and in different air mass types were analysed over the years 2011-2012. Average UHI in Warsaw is of a diamond shape which reflects the distribution of the densest built area and exceeds 2.0°C in the city centre compared to the airport station. In subtropical air mass, the intensity of UHI on the left side of the Vistula River reached 7.7°C. The basis for the analysis is the microclimatic measurement network of 28 permanent points in Warsaw and its surroundings, operated by IGSO PAS and completed by data from 7 other stations. This dense network became the IGSO PAS’ input into an UHI project titled ‘Development and application of mitigation and adaptation strategies and measures for counteracting the global Urban Heat Islands phenomenon (UHI)’ implemented through the Central Europe Program and co-financed by the ERDF.
- The paper presents the changes in the political and administrative boundaries of the German state, which took place during the 20th century. The starting point is constituted by the political pattern having developed after the establishment of the German Empire in 1871, this pattern lasting until the World War I. Then, the territorial consequences are considered of the decisions, taken at the Versailles Peace Conference. After the presentation of the situation existing during the inter-war period, the political transformations are shown of the annexation politics of the Nazi Germany. The final part of the paper is devoted to the territorial effects that the Potsdam Treaty brought for the defeated Germany.
- The paper presents the characterisation of turnover in foreign trade across the Polish segment of eastern boundary of the European Union. On the basis of data from the Ministry of Finance the variability was analysed of the volume of foreign trade in the years 2005 and 2007, considering different state borders, border crossing points and directions of trade. These considerations have been broadened by the analysis of the unregistered turnover of the peri-border trade, this analysis being based on the data from the Central Statistical Office (GUS).
- The paper presents the Digital Geomorphological Map of Poland (DGM) on which work started in 2013. Background is provided on the history of geomorphological mapping and the digital adaptation of analoguegeomorphological maps. The legend (key symbols) of the DGM and the construction of its database are introduced. The test sheets prepared on the basis of the DGM assumptions are demonstrated.
- The paper presents the role and significance of territorial identity in shaping local policy based on selected counties (powiaty in Polish; NTS 4 territorial units) of the Podlaskie, Mazowieckie and Lubelskie Provinces (provinces at NTS 2 level). For this purpose, 27 county development strategies and local development plans were analysed with particular emphasis on references to local resources and strategic actions related to territorial identity. Both factors directly relating to identity and its indirect forms of expression were recognized. Territorial identity of the population living in the research area is ambiguous and relatively low in comparison to for instance Górny Śląsk (Upper Silesia) or Kaszuby (Kashubia) regions. The borders of provinces established under the administrative reform of 1999 are inconsistent with historical and cultural regions. This, in turn, had a significant impact on the level and nature of identity among inhabitants and their perception by the outsiders. Territorial identity was not recognized in the analyzed documents in the context of local resource. Actions aimed at strengthening or establishing territorial identity were included only in one in three development strategies. Conducted research proves that local community’s affection to place of existence is a commonly omitted factor in such an important tool serving local development as development strategies and local development plans. This is certainly not a desired finding, especially in the light of research exhibiting a number of positive impact areas related to territorial identity upon local development. This is particularly important in the context of research area, considering that analysed counties belong mainly to the so-called problem areas with numerous unfavourable socio-economic and demographic characteristics.
- The paper provides a short overview of the legal and institutional background of functional regions in Hungary, analyses the impact of EU cohesion policy and presents dilemmas concerning the management structures in territorial units crossing administrative borders. The Hungarian case demonstrates that although the need for a place based, territorially sensitive and integrated approach has become one of the most highlighted issues over the last decade, the overall impacts of EU cohesion policy on planning and development activities in functional regions have proved to be controversial. The paper partly relies on the case study of Central Hungary developed in the framework of the ESPON COMPASS project. -
- The paper refers to the contemporary sensitivity of a ribbon flow-through lake to changeable meteorological conditions (precipitation, evaporation). We checked whether the lake morphology can affect the abrupt changes in hydrological conditions under which environmental changes occur. We analyzed changes in the level and extent of the water table in relation to morphological thresholds of a Charzykowskie Lake. Changes in the lake water level were disproportionate in relation to small changes in the volume of water involved in the exchange. During 55 years of observations, the lake water level did not exceed the threshold values of sensitivity to shortage or surplus stress.
- The paper reviews the main tendencies and problems of rural employment in Ukraine. It has been concluded that the issue of rural employment could not be solved without a well-defined rural development policy and separately from other problems related to the rural regions. That is why it is necessary to implement in Ukraine the integrated rural policy which assumes a multisectoral approach to overcome the existing problems, to stimulate the economic diversity, and to expand non-agricultural activities in the rural areas. In order to develop the rural labour market it will be essential to achieve balance between the urban and rural areas, to create an attractive business environment, to build a stable rural financial system, and to develop physical and social infrastructures. In this paper the descriptive analysis is used to analyse tendencies and to identify opportunities for the increase in rural employment across the country.
- The pattern of timberline distribution on mountain ranges world-wide is related to global factors. The basic factor is temperature and the amount of radiation, which falls with increasing distance from the equator. Additionally, this basic relationship is overlaid by the specific features of the type of climate on the massif (degree of continentality or oceanity) and the mass-elevation effect. In the Carpathians, the mass elevation effectseems to have bigger impact on the location of timberline (R2 = 0.71, p = 0.00) than their latitudinal location (R2 = 0.56, p = 0.00). The timberline altitude changes by 70 m a.s.l. (±20 m) with each degree of latitude. The influenceof the type of the climate is complex and it is not clearly visible due to past and recent human impact.
- People need to travel for work, education, shopping, recreation, healthcare and other services.Because not everyone owns or uses a personal vehicle for various reasons, pressure is created to organise public transport as a service of the public interest, which is supposed to eliminate the potential transport-related social exclusion of inhabitants from territories with poor transport accessibility. The subject of the study is an analysis of the daily accessibility by public transport of 8 regional (administrative) centres in Slovakia (Bratislava, Trnava, Trenčín, Nitra, Banská Bystrica, Žilina, Košice, Prešov) from all municipalities of their self-governing regions (during working days and Sundays). We pay attention to regional comparisons of the identified spatial extent of disadvantaged areas by public transport and the quantity of the affected population with the potential risk of their social exclusion also due to the existing state of public transport organisation in individual regions. <br>
- The phenomenon of outdoor advertising degrading the cultural landscape is especially alarming in areas that are under protection because of their landscape value. Those are the areas which experience a lot of pressure on account of the development of such functions as tourism, recreation and housing and their related services, which is closely associated with intensive outdoor advertising. The Lednica Cultural Park is an example of such area. This research sought to identify the scale of problems caused by the presence of advertisements in the study area. The results include the selection of places most heavily degraded by advertising, and the identification of tendencies in the way ads are located, their forms, areas, impact on the environment, and perception. The conclusions can help in defining the rules and conditions for managing public and private spaces in the rural areas for use in an advertising policy.
- Planning the public space as part of the “village renewal” should be based on rural identity and its traditions, but on the other hand also on contemporary design trends. “Village renewal” is a joint action of local authorities, experts and – above all – inhabitants, aimed at improving the quality of life, aesthetics of the surrounding area, protecting and shaping the landscape, and implementing social initiatives. In the region of Warmia and Masuria, the Marshal Office plays a special role in accomplishing the “renewal” tasks. Regional authorities coordinate the renewal program and undertake numerous social and cultural initiatives, organize trainings, conferences and thematic workshops. The paper briefly presents the role of the “Village Renewal Program” in the context of planning the public space. Main assumptions for creating such space based on social participation and expert assistance were also determined. The author presented examples of projects in selected villages of the Warmińsko-Mazurskie Voivodship, including these from the “Active Village of Warmia, Masuria and Powiśle” program. The paper highlighted positive results of these activities, but has also referred to existing problems.
- Poland is a peculiar example of country which had a very rich tradition of being one of Europe’s most multicultural societies, and at the same time most tolerant and open to “others”, notwithstanding a contemporary history characterised by a notable degree of national and religious homogeneity, as well as the aversion of a large part of society (and some political parties) to immigrants, especially those from beyond European culture. This is also visible in any attempt to outline contemporary geographical research in multiculturalism, as well as its presence in geographical education. The following general conclusions could be formulated on the basis of the analysis carried out: – The vast majority of research topics taken up concern relics of the former Polish multiculturalism – small and strongly integrated national, ethnic and religious minorities, cultural heritage attesting to the rich and proud history of Poland, and the presence of Polish culture and tradition in eastern borderland regions that lives on through centres of Polish minorities. Overall, it is what might be described as “sentimental multiculturalism” (internal, historical, traditional and indigenous); – The same relationship can be seen in school-level geographical education, which shows Polish multiculturalism through the lens of centuries-old, but currently scarce national and religious diversity, as well as the migration of Poles to the United Kingdom. At the same time, societies with different skin colours and non-Christian religions are located in far-away, exotic countries. – Despite the latest censuses showing a dynamic increase in numbers of the so-called regional minorities (especially Silesian and Kashubian) that dominate the contemporary ethnic structure of Poland, as well as their intensified social, cultural and political aspirations, there has been no proportionate upsurge of interest on the part of geographers; – Geographical research marginalises the issue of “immigrant multiculturalism” (external, modern and immigrant), despite this being an important research, journalistic, economic and political issue in the European Union for decades, and especially now. This perception of, and research on multiculturalism, in Polish geography is to a large extent understandable, in line with the historical and cultural importance of the so-called traditional minorities on the one hand, and – on the other – the lack of attractiveness of our country as a destination for settlement among economic migrants and refugees from the Middle East and North Africa. Despite all of that, Poland will ultimately not differ from Western Europe, in that it will not avoid a further increase in multiculturalism, given that no minority will either fully emigrate or fully integrate. Sooner or later, the influx of immigrants from nonEuropean cultures will increase, and the waves of legal and illegal immigration will not omit Poland. The substantive and mental preparation of Polish society for this “immigrant multiculturalism” – in a manner that is free of both populism and political correctness – represents a huge challenge for geographers, but also for sociologists, political scientists and historians.
- Poland’s socio-economic transformation brought a rapid increase in motorisation even as public transport underwent regression. This problem was particularly marked in the rail-transport sector, which experienced the largest contraction in the history of railways on Polish territory. However, by the late 2010s and early 2020s, it was possible to note positive change on the country’s rail-services market, mainly due to investment in infrastructure and the emergence of new railway companies. The period in question may thus be seen to mark the beginning of a new stage to the development of rail transport in Poland. Notwithstanding steady growth in numbers of passengers carried by rail in recent years, the current level of use of this means of transport continues to look relatively low in Poland, as compared with other EU Member States. This leaves it especially important for rail transport to be researched, in the contexts of both the sector’s functioning in a new stage to its development, and the strengthening of rail’s role as a means of transport. In this, the analysis of passenger flows should be emphasised in particular, given the way this allows spatial differentiation of travel behaviour in given areas to be identified. However, as difficulties with obtaining relevant data have ensured a lack of full understanding in the relevant literature, the work underpinning the present article was designed specifically to help make good this research gap. Specifically, this article aims to elucidate the spatial distribution of passenger flows as set against the transport offer, and to identify the kind of relationship which pertains between these two features and aspects. To that end, research was conducted in Poland’s Dolnośląskie Voivodeship – as a regional-level unit of administration considered to exemplify rail transport at regional level. In consequence, our analysis was able to confirm the uneven nature of volumes of passenger traffic across Poland. A peak concentration of traffic characterises the commuter lines around Wrocław, which is also the largest generator of traffic. However, at successively greater distances from that urban centre, numbers of passengers are found to be steadily lower. This culminates in a situation whereby the smallest numbers of people travel along lines in the region’s peripheries, most especially where sections of the rail network lack direct connections with Wrocław. Through empirical analysis forming this study’s last part, we also confirmed that data on the transport offer may (with certain limitations) be treated as a proxy for data on passenger traffic.
- Polish forests differ in their potential to provide ecosystem services (ES), but it is unclear how and to what extent. We assessed the potential of 35 forest habitat types to provide 17 key ES and showed that the montane mesic broadleaved forest has a high potential to provide the largest number of key forest services (14 out of 17), which gives it the status of a multi-service hotspot. The highest overall potential was found in the forests of mountain regions, slightly lower in the postglacial northern regions, and the lowest in the central lowland regions. <br>
