Abstract - Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization PAS

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The 1989 fall of the Iron Curtain marked the beginning of new economic, socio-cultural and political realities for the former socialist states in Central and Eastern Europe. Along with the economic restructuring from statecentralised to market economy, democratisation and liberalisation initiated a transformation of the socialist urban space, which was characterised by the changing role of its iconic landmarks. This conceptual paper examines these post-1989 changes, which range between the removal of these landmarks and their transition into market led iconic and flagship attractions. The paper identifies the changing role of tourism from a topbottom orchestrated to a market led activity, which explains the transformation of some of these landmarks. It introduces a new framework for studying this process by suggesting that iconisation, de-iconisation and re-iconisation processes are interrelated to other strategies and approaches to the transition of the socialist urban landscape into a western market economy. The paper identifies avenues for further research and provides some recommendations for improving the management of similar processes.
The agricultural abandonment and reforestation taking place over the last few decades in the Carpathians has led to accelerated transformation of pasture landscape. The trajectories of pasture landscape changes, the factors threatening and supporting the pastures’ traditional use have been established on the basis of archival and contemporary cartographic materials, historical scientific works and archival photographs. An attempt has also been made to assess pasture landscape durability. The major part of the former pasture landscape has evolved into forest or settlement landscapes. The pasture landscape durability will only be possible if the operations supporting the traditional mountain grazing are continued.
The aim of our study was to determine the nature of the relationships among the characteristics of earthworm assemblages, selected soil properties and the degree of landscape fragmentation against seasonal changes. The study area was located near Rogajny in the Suwałki Lake District, where 54 permanent study plots were established in a homogeneous field (Dd) and in a mosaic of small fields and balks (Dm). The earthworms were collected in spring and autumn over a two-year period (2007–2008), from blocks of soil measuring 25×25×30 cm. Soil samples were collected from the same sampling points as the earthworms. Both, qualitative and quantitative parameters of earthworm assemblages showed the same trends, thus appearing to be equally reflective. The complex arable landscape site supported higher earthworm diversity, abundance and biomass than the homogeneous arable landscape. The spring and autumn earthworm sampling campaigns revealed very different patterns. We conclude that species richness is determined mostly by spatial structure of agrocenosis mosaics, whilst abundance and biomass of earthworm community is mainly influenced by soil conditions. Comparisons between data and formulating conclusions should be made with great care, as these relations depend on the temporal scales to a large extent.
The aim of our work to describe the plant cover in the area of the river Warta’s inflow and discharge into the Reservoir. To the above end, field studies were conducted along 6 transects (10 m wide and 513 to 2416 m long, depending on the influence of surface waters) intended to reveal abrasive, accumulative and stabilised impacts of water. Różnorodność roślinności i dynamika procesów sukcesyjnych związanych z aktywnością wód powierzchniowych wskazuje na potrzebę dla ochrony prawnej nie tylko ptaków, ale także siedlisk. Obszar ten dobrze ilustruje zjawiska związane z działalnością dużej rzeki, z różnorodnością roślinności kolejno seria tego rodzaju, której nie można już znaleźć pod tamą Reservoir.
The aim of the analysis presented here has been to describe long-term variability in air temperature in Poland over the 1951-2010 period. Certain spatial aspects have also been discussed. In order to provide a representative and homogeneous temperature series, station data were averaged for 7 geographical regions of Poland, and for the country as a whole. The distinction drawn between shoreland, lakelands, lowlands, highlands, Subcarpathia, the Sudetes and the Carpathians is as adopted after Kondracki (2002). It takes account of such important factors underpinning spatial variability in temperaturę as altitude, relief, land use, and, indirectly (as a result of latitudinal distribution) also distance from the Baltic Sea and the amount of received solar radiation. In total, monthly average temperature values from 45 synoptic stations were used to calculate an area-averaged temperature for Poland (Table 1). Further study then entailed analysis of annual, seasonal and monthly series with a view to determining trends (at an adopted statistical signifi cance of =0.05), decadal average temperature variability, the longterm course to be noted for air temperature anomalies and the range of variability. The most signifi cant feature of the long-term (1951-2010) variability in annual air temperature in Poland is the statistically signifi cant increase that displays in every analysed region, with an average rate of change exceeding 0.2°C per decade (Table 2). At the seasonal level, an upward trend is to be noted for spring (+0.36°C/10 years) and summer (almost 0.2°C/10 years). In line with this, the decade 2001-2010 was the hottest in the analyzed period (Table 3, 8-10), with the exception of winter (Table 7), for which a slight decrease in average air temperature relative to the 1991-2000 period could be observed. When set against the whole 1951-2000 period, the rate of annual warming remains approximately constant though the summer-season contribution to the warming trendis clearly increasing, while the winter contribution is reduced. On a monthly basis, statistically signifi cant warming over the period is to be observed for February (by over 0.5°C/10 years – the highest rate for any month), during spring (i.e. in March, April and May), and in July and August. Analysis addressing the spatial distribution to the trend revealed that the highest rate of temperature increase is affecting northern Poland (the shoreland and lakeland belts) and the Carpathians, while the lowest rate of increases is to be observed for the highlands and the Sudetes. The long-term course of air temperature anomalies is dominated by short-term variability, which manifests itself in relatively large changes from year to year and with the occurrence of short warm and cold periods. However, where annual series are concerned there has been a noticeable run of warmer years since 1988 (Fig. 1), with only a few exceptions (e.g. 1996 and 2010). A similar situation applies to spring (Fig. 3) and summer (Fig. 4). Furthermore, the spatial cohesion displayed by air-temperature variability indicates that observed changes in thermal conditions in Poland are mainly driven by large-scale factor(s). Fluctuations in annual air temperature averaged for Poland do not exceed ±2°C. On the seasonal scale, variability range varies from 3.9°C in summer to 10.2°C in winter, while at the level of individual months the range is between 4.7°C in June and 16.3°C in February. Relatively small variations in air temperature characterisethe Baltic coast (the shoreland belt). Another feature of long-term air temperaturę change in Poland is that the values for extreme negative anomalies in winter are clearly larger than the positive ones. In the annual cycle, July is most often the warmest month (in 60% of the years during the 1951-2010 period), while the minimal average air temperaturę has most often been recorded in January (in 45% of years).
The aim of the analysis was to compare physicochemical parameters and chemical composition of two groups of artificial reservoirs, mountain and lowland ones, characterised by different parameters and functions. Three mountain artificial reservoirs (Klimkówka, Dobczyce, Czorsztyn) located in the Upper Vistula basin (Carpathian Mountains in Poland) and three lowland reservoirs (Ivankovo, Verhnevolzhskoye, Vyshnevolotzkoye) located in the Upper Volga basin (Eastern European Lowland in Russia) were selected for the study. Data for the summer season in 2009-2013 were used in the analysis. Mountain reservoirs display high water concentrations of sulphates, chlorides and biogenic nitrates, and lower concentrations of ammonium and oxygen indicator in relation to lowland reservoirs. Similar concentrations of phosphates were noticed in both the mountain and the lowland reservoirs. The hydrochemical differentiation between the individual mountain reservoirs was small, and statistically significant differences only occurred for SEC. Greater differentiation of the hydrochemical parameters was found among the lowland reservoirs. Statistically significant differences were demonstrated with regard to SEC, Cl- and NO3-.
The aim of the article is description of the concept and research of the smart city. Based on the review of international literature, the smart city idea is interpreted, indicating positive and negative aspects including the relationship between modern network technologies and the urban community. The smart city concept assumes the use of network infrastructure to improve the economic and political efficiency of resources and enable the development of urban areas. This development should be an intelligent and sustainable and should contribute to the improvement of the quality of life. The concept evolves over time and more and more attention is devoted not only to the technological infrastructure itself but also to its impact on urban communities. Questions are increasingly being asked about the impact of smart development on the improvement of human and social capital as well as on social polarization or social exclusion. Therefore, newer definition assumes that smart city is a city in which investments in human and social capital and traditional (transport) and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources, through participatory governance. In this context different smart city schools can be distinguished. The scientific debate about the smart city concept covers not only issues related to the development of new technologies and solving problems of local communities, but also the impact of this concept on social and economic polarization. It can be noticed that in cities that undertake initiatives aimed at being called intelligent cities, on the one hand, the interests of residents and, on the other hand, companies implementing modern technologies, clash. The implementation of the smart city concept has its negative implications for urban development due to top-down management and the limited use of a bottom-up approach. For this reason, city residents should take an active part in the design, construction and management of cities.
The aim of the article is to assess the role of local leaders in generating social capital in rural areas. The analysis is based on a study of Jeżewo commune (Świecki county, Kujawsko-Pomorskie province). The study attempts to answer the following questions: Which personality traits and social conditions determine the possibility of becoming a local leader? Which initiatives can provide the basis for building social capital in the countryside? What is the leader’s role in generating social capital in rural areas? The results of the research indicate that the role of the local leader in creating social capital consists in activating the society by initiating and moderating various projects aimed at integrating the local community, intensifying relations and constructing local identity. According to the study, shared passions and interests can be the pivot of such grassroots projects.
The aim of the article is to characterize one of the forms concerning conflict management, i.e. overcoming the conflict, which appeared in the context of the schools liquidation in rural areas. The presented analyzes are based on the results of empirical research conducted among stakeholders of local educational policy in Poland from 2016 to 2018. The author focused primarily on the actions of local authorities (mayors) to overcome the social conflict arising from the planned liquidation of local schools. These activities concerned teachers who were the inspirers and leaders of the local conflict in the examined rural municipalities. The measures applied to teachers did not resolve the conflict (nor eliminated its causes) and appeared to be irrational from the economic point of view. Nevertheless, they helped to overcome the conflict and limit its negative consequences. The theoretical framework of the article is defined by the concept of social conflict developed by L.A. Coser and selected theoretical approaches towards conflict management.
The aim of the article is to define the concept of territorial classification and typology, including classification and typology of spatial units, and to systematize the practical variants of the method, as well as to identify the possibilities of using functional structure as a research tool. It systematizes existing approaches of creating functional classifications and typologies and presents examples of their application in analyses to interpret and explain dissection of individual variables. The paper consists of two parts. In the first one the spatial unit classification has been defined and distinguished from related terms. Different classification of rural areas has been systemized using formal and methodological or substantive criteria. In the second part, diverse empirical examples of rural spatial units classifications regarding functional structure and their application have been examined in relation to above mentioned systematics.
The aim of the article is to evaluate law regulations being in force in Poland regarding the participation of local communities in shaping the rural space in relation to the concept of ladder of citizen participation by S. Arnstein and the idea of collaborative planning. It has been assumed that shaping the space involves both establishing and defining borders of given areas, its planning with various degrees of detail (appointing development priorities, defining destination and land use), as well as planning and implementation of specific projects. For this purpose, 27 legal acts (laws and national regulations) have been reviewed. These documents outline the framework for the inclusion of society (including local communities) in shaping the rural space and the interpretations of legal provisions made by other authors have been implemented. Inspired by the concept ladder of citizen participation according to S. Arnstein (1969), a diagram was developed illustrating the degree of public participation guaranteed by the legislative system in shaping the rural space divided into categories, taking into account the role of local communities.
The aim of the article is to identify the impact of agriculture on the economic and ecological rural space after Poland’s accession to the European Union. The EU membership has given significant impetus to the transformation of agriculture mainly in the industrial (farming) aspect due to implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). This has led to deepening the process of deagrarianization of rural areas. With regard to the economic sphere, the author considered workplaces and sources of livelihood (income), while analyzing the ecological space, some indicators of environmental sustainability of agricultural holdings were employed. The Central Statistical Office data of Farms’ Structure Survey of 2005 and 2016 in a cross-section types of commune (rural, urban-rural, urban) comprised the factual material used. Agriculture loses in importance in the economic sphere, especially in urbanized communes. This has been indicated by a downward trend in the number of farms, especially those providing major agricultural income for the maintenance of the farmer’s family, as well as engaging decreasing labor resources in agricultural activity. In respect of the ecological sphere, changes are heterogeneous. On the one hand, the progressive farmerization of agriculture intensifies the adverse nature of concentration and specialization in production. On the other hand, agricultural production based on scarce minerals helps to improve economic sustainability. There is an increase in environmental-friendly agricultural practices in connection with the ecosystem functions. Currently, apart from factors that contribute to the process of deagrarianization, there are also certain aspects, which delayed the process. These include, in particular, questioning the effects of globalization in relation to food system, orientation on sustainable development to highlight the bioeconomy and agri-ecological intensification, ethnoconsumerism as well as interest in folk culture and regional identity.
The aim of the article is to indicate fundamental factors determining the potential opportunities to improving economic welfare of rural communities in Poland - in particular by increasing the added value. Rural areas have made a significant contribution to the general socio-economic development in the period of industrialization at the same time taking a little advantage of it. In particular, the size of added value generated in rural areas has decreased mainly due to agriculture and rural crafts. This situation began to change under the influence of accession to the European Union, changes in the urban-rural relationship, the phenomena of globalization and the new situation in terms of food security. Because the creation of added value is key to increasing welfare in rural areas, the usage of every opportunity is crucial. Therefore, there is a need for a rational, agriculture and rural development policy
The aim of the article is to present selected research directions and results of studies on the market for passenger cars (with an emphasis on its geographical dimension). The focus has been on four main groups of issues: (1) car ownership and car-demand modelling, (2) the relationship between the primary and secondary car market in emergingeconomies, (3) the role of spatial factors and public transport in the functioning of the car market and (4) the environmental impact of automotive expansion and ways of coping with that, such as electromobility and the sharing economy. Studies on car ownership and the demand for cars both confirm that volumes and rates of growth depend primarily on economic factors (GDP, personal incomes, car prices and prices of complementary goods). They also describe spatial and temporal differences in the so-called first automobile revolution (the spread of cars as a mode of transport). The next group of studies on the car market deals with the relationship between the primary and secondary markets in emerging economies (including Poland), in which car ownership has entered on to a path of rapid growth in recent years. The development of the market for passenger cars is also influenced significantly by such spatial factors as urbanisation, population density, the built environment and distance to city centres as well as the accessibility and operation of public transport. These issues, very important from a geographical point of view, are discussed in a subsequent part of the article, prior to current findings on the environmental impact of automobiles being described, in particular as regards the role of various fuels (especially gasoline-petrol and diesel) in generating emissions of harmful substances. The paper then ends with a brief discussion on electric and hybrid cars as well as the sharing economy. In the literature, the above-mentioned topics are found to be related to the so-called second automobile revolution, and are thus of key importance to the debate on the contemporary car market and changes therein. This interdisciplinary debate is seen to be worthy of an involvement on the part of geographers that is broader than hitherto.
The aim of the article is to present the research methodology for assessing the state of spatial order and disorder in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship. The study included statistical data for the years 2010‑2015, cartographic and descriptive research as well as field studies. Diagnostic features (in the form of 30 indicators, also in Table 1), in seven kinds of space in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship (physical and geographical, cultural, settlement-urban, socio-economic, tourist-recreational, environmental protection and planning) enabled to distinguish four categories of areas: 1 – spatial order, 2 – relative spatial order, 3 – endangered by spatial disorder and 4 – spatial disorder. Cartographic presentation of the seven spaces mentioned above along with the eighth types (synthesis) (Figures 2‑9), enabled presentation of prevailing spatial order and disorder, against the background of prior spatial regionalization and functional typology (Figure 1) and location of the most active villages in shaping spatial order and communes with the highest number of implemented projects by means of the European Union funds in the field of village renewal (Figure 10). The results of research on the level of local development (communes), indicate the current situation in the area of the highest spatial order and disorder. This has a significant impact on further spatial planning policy in the 124 rural and rural-urban communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship. It is the signal for the local government administration, cooperating entities and the local community concerning the state of sustainable development, and the need for continuous, consistent increase of spatial governance and – at the same time – reduction of spatial disorder. In 2018, a new Urban-building code, which is even stronger than the Planning and spatial development Act of 2003 is enforcing spatial policy in a commune. The results of spatial ordering presented in this paper meet the requirements of the new view towards many related issues.
The aim of the article was to diagnose economic and environmental factors determining trade in agricultural land of Poland. The agricultural land can have many values and functions depending on the different needs of buyers. It is important what price of land the buyer expects in the future, what goals are assumed and what is the quality of land. Among economic factors, the following were distinguished: price, supply and demand for agricultural land intended for agricultural production or for non-agricultural purposes, parallel functioning of two market segments – private (on which the majority of trade in agricultural land takes place between farmers), as well as the land market – Agricultural Property Stock of the State Treasury, profitability of agricultural production. Among the most important environmental factors were included: bonitation (land classification) and agrotechnical category of soils, existence of mineral deposits within the boundaries of the real estate, location in areas subject to legal protection, current development status, location in an attractive natural environment, land form, difficulties in accessing the property. An important role and significance in agricultural land turnover was attributed to soil bonitation, which is necessary before the valuation of agricultural real estate due to possible changes in use, quality classes or soil degradation, which has a direct impact on the property value. In the current legal reality of trade in agricultural land in Poland, the results of land classification have a large impact on the economic effects of agricultural land allocation for non-agricultural purposes, e.g. construction or exploitation of minerals.
The aim of the article was to identify the role of specific and rare (including unique) resources in the development strategies of rural communes (in Polish: gmina). Peripheral communes (that is, located outside the sub-regions of big cities) were examined. Communes were selected from the ones with: the highest own revenue of communal budget per capita averaged for the years 2010-14; the highest indicator of natural persons conducting economic activity per 1,000 people at working age and the occurrence of rare resources (spas, sightseeing attractions). Communes adjacent to towns were excluded from analysis. Lists of development factors for SWOT analysis and other elements of strategic plans provided sources of information. Research methodology involved analysis and classification of studied development factors and further analysis of other parts within documents. The research results indicate that mineral resources (lignite) and tourist values, especially those associated with the sea and beaches have contributed to development of rural communes to the highest extent. Strategic documents of communes vary in quality. In many cases the strategies fail to adequately expose the specificity of resources. Methodological errors in the SWOT analysis are common. Positive missions emphasizing the specificity of communes are rare.
The aim of the current study was to identify the main actors (leaders) involved in transformations of mediumsized cities in Poland and Russia that share similar legacies but took different development paths after the collapse of state socialism. These transformations are discussed using the framework of urban regeneration and are based on empirical data from two cities – Kolomna (Russia) and Kalisz (Poland). The data were obtained through expert interviews, as well as nonparticipant observation in the two cities. Though the process of urban regeneration shows similarities, the process leaders are different.
The aim of the paper is to analyze the population changes in industrial cities on the background of population changes in cities of a different functional type. It was assumed that in the period of dynamic development of the highly specialized industrial function of the city, its population is growing rapidly above average. During the recession of industrial function in this group of cities, their population is also decreasing rapidly above average. In both cases, nonlinear development is fundamental to the phenomenon of so-called bifurcation. Transformation of Polish cities after 1989 has caused quite significant changes in their demographic development. Significantly, these changes were conditioned by the transformation of the economy, including the phenomenon of deindustrialization. Nevertheless, demographic factors were also important. These directly and indirectly affected by economic determinants. Hence, after 1990, urban centers experienced a peculiar ‘game of the inhabitants’, whose essence was the widespread negative population growth and the positive balance of migration to a few dozen cities. In this particular place, there were strong industrial centers before 1989. The analysis of population changes in Polish cities of different size categories showed that industrial cities are now much more dynamic depopulating than other types of functional cities. As a result of the loss of the "pull" attribute, and in many times the situation of gaining the attributes of "push" or "disappearing" interest of potential migrants, their demographic profile had to be reduced. This trend was further strengthened by the consequences of the second demographic transition.
The aim of the paper is to characterize the trends of sunshine duration (SDU) and air temperature in Poland, which may help understand the mechanism of contemporary climate change. The daily totals of SDU and daily data on air temperature from the years 1971-2020, from 25 synoptic stations in Poland are the basic source data. The series of records of the two variables showed that the points of change in the level of stabilization of the value of SDU and air temperature are close to each other, and confirm known in the literature “global dimming” and “global brightening” periods. The linear regression model confirmed that sunshine duration explains well the variability of, and increase in day-time air temperature in Poland in the warm part of the year.

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